Families & Households Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
What is Althusser’s theory on family?
A
Family is an ideological state apparatus.
2
Q
What is Zaretsky’s theory on family? 🔴
A
The family supports capitalism by:
- Providing emotional support to workers, acting like a “warm bath”
- This helps maintain a false class consciousness
- Numbs the pain of capitalist exploitation.
3
Q
How do children uphold capitalism?
A
Children pester their parents to buy new products.
4
Q
What is child centeredness?
A
Family have more time and attention for children.
Has consequences eg. Helicopter parents.
5
Q
What is Engles’ theory on family?
A
Monogamy; family used to pass on wealth.
6
Q
What is serial monogamy?
A
A series of monogamous marriages.
Found in Europe and the USA, where there are high rates of divorce and remarriage.
7
Q
What are the three communities identified by Lane, Spencer and McCready where the classic extended family can still be found?
A
Traveller, Traditional working class, South Asian.
8
Q
What is the traveller community?
A
Often small, tight-knit groups of people who believe in traditional family values.
9
Q
What characterises traditional working-class communities in terms of family and child-rearing?
A
- Shaped by cultural and socio-economic factors
- Often emphasise strong ties to extended family and community support in raising children
10
Q
What were the findings of Berthoud (2001)? 🌏
A
South Asian families:
- Tend to be larger, more likely to be extended, with traditional gender roles and strong family values.
Afro-Caribbean families:
- More likely to follow ‘modern individualism’ — smaller households, higher rates of lone parenthood, and greater emphasis on independence and personal choic
11
Q
What is the quirk of the South Asian community?
A
Children often stay in family home longer than other cultural groups, usually centered around the male side of the family.
12
Q
What were the findings of Ballard (1982)? 🟤
A
Patriarchal extended families are more common in families of South Asian descent than other ethnic groups.
13
Q
What are the characteristics of South Asian families?
A
- Clear inst & expr roles 🎸
- High rates of marriage 💍
- Births within marriage 👩🍼
- Many children 👶
- Strong family ties 🪢
- Low cohabitation rates ↔️
- Low divorce rates ❤️🩹
14
Q
What were the findings of Brannen (2003)? 🟢
A
- People are having less children
- The family is becoming narrower due to rising life expectancies and increasing costs of children
15
Q
What is the role of family members in Caribbean families?
A
Fathers:
- Economic provider and protector
Mothers:
- Primary caregiver and head of household
Extended family:
- Supports childcare and discipline, especially when fathers are absent.
16
Q
What were the findings of Roopnarine et al. (1996)? ⚪️
A
The late 20th century saw some men becoming more involved in their children’s lives
17
Q
How are EU and Eastern European families different?
A
Many European workers migrate to the UK alone to find work, earning money to repatriate back to their families.
18
Q
What were the findings of Levin (2004) on life courses? 🟢
A
The classic life course of being born, having children, and retiring was ‘compulsory’.
19
Q
What is individualisation?
A
The process whereby traditional social relationships, roles and beliefs lose their influence over the lives of individuals.
20
Q
What were the findings of Giddens (1993) and Beck-Gernsheim (1995, 2001)? 🟢
A
The individualisation thesis;
- Traditional rules governing lives have broken down, leading to more individual choice
21
Q
What were the findings of Bauman (2003)? 🟢
A
Argues individualisation is due to weak human bonds in today’s digital world.
22
Q
What were the medical findings of Beck-Gernsheim (2002)? 🟢
A
Developments in modern medicine have detached sex and reproduction, allowing women more freedom.
23
Q
What were the findings of Giddens (1993) on love? 🟢
A
Confluent love:
- A choice-based, active, and negotiated form of love focused on mutual satisfaction
Pure relationships:
- Relationships maintained only as long as both partners benefit emotionally, rejecting the idea of lifelong, permanent ties.
- Emphasises flexibility, equality, and communication over tradition or duty.
24
Q
What were the findings of Giddens (2013)? 🟢
A
Love is the only place where we get the emotional support we need.
25
What were the findings of Chambers (2012)? 🟢
Individualisation has been a central explanation for changes in ideas about love, commitment, and family decline.
26
What has caused the rise of divorce rates?
- The role of women
- Expectations of marriage
- Secularisation
- Social attitudes
- Contraception
- Privatised nuclear families
- Reduced functions of the family
- Life expectancy
27
How has the changing role of women caused the rise of divorce rates?
Traditionally women were seen as 'property' with low quality of marriage life; growing empowerment allows them to initiate ⅔ of divorces.
28
How has the rising expectations of marriage caused the rise of divorce rates?
Parsons argued expectations of marriage are higher now, leading to less tolerance of bad marriages.
29
What is secularisation?
The process by which religion becomes less influential in society.
30
How has secularisation caused the rise of divorce rates?
Marriage was traditionally a religious institution; less than ⅓ of marriages today involve a religious ceremony.
31
How has changing social attitudes caused the rise of divorce rates?
Individualism has grown, making commitment less desirable; rising expectations and secularisation also contribute.
32
How has contraception caused the rise of divorce rates?
Marriage used to regulate sexual relations; today, contraception and sex outside of marriage are more accepted.
33
How has the privatised nuclear family caused the rise of divorce rates?
Extended family is less common, creating more pressure on marriage and fewer constraints on abandonment.
34
How has reduced family functions caused the rise of divorce rates?
Functionalists argue that the family has lost its function, leading to fewer necessary bonds holding it together.
35
How has increasing life expectancy caused the rise of divorce rates?
Marriages must last longer, increasing chances of issues arising.
36
What class has the highest divorce rates?
Young working class.
37
At what points of the marriage is divorce most prominent?
7 years in and 14 years in.
38
How does divorce affect the experience of childhood?
⬆️ Increased exposure to divorce and 'parent-sharing'
⬇️ Reduced exposure to conflict.
39
From Beck and Beck-Gernsheim's postmodernist perspective, what do they see the rising divorce rate as a product of?
The growing individualization and uncertainty of late modern and postmodern societies.
40
What percentage of women in the 1970s were married?
91%.
41
What proportion of women are married now?
⅓.
42
What is marriage?
A legal and formally recognized union between two people.
43
What is cohabitation?
The state of living together.
44
How has the role of women contributed to the decline in marriage?
Women's empowerment means they are more economically independent, delaying or deeming marriage unnecessary.
45
How has reduced family function contributed to the decline in marriage?
Functionalists argue that family is losing its function, making marriage less necessary.
46
How has the cost of weddings contributed to the decline in marriage?
The average UK wedding costs more than £20,000 which many find not worth the cost.
47
How has social attitudes contributed to the decline in marriage?
Cohabitation is now more socially acceptable, especially among the young.
48
How has the rising divorce rate contributed to the decline in marriage?
High divorce rates deter many from marriage due to its complex and bitter process.
49
What were the findings of Beck (1992)? 🟢
- More choice in relationships increases social risks.
- Some avoid marriage to reduce these risks.
50
What were the findings of Levin (2004) on LATs? 🟢
Living Apart Together (LAT) relationships are chosen for everyday freedom, seen as an alternative to marriage.
51
Why are people in LAT relationships?
Existing commitments, practical reasons, and risk of past cohabitation experiences.
52
What were the findings of Funk and Kobayashi (2014)? 🟢
LATs reduce the sacrifices and obligations of being in a relationship.
53
What are the sociological reasons for the popularity of LATs?
- Empowerment of women ✊
- Changing social attitudes 😤
- Individualisation 🧍
- Improved communication 💬
- Changes in the labour market 👨💼
54
What are the reasons for increases in lone-parent families in the UK?
- Empowerment of women ✊
- Fewer 'shotgun' weddings 🔫
- Improved contraception ⛑️
- Changing social attitudes 😤
55
What do many new right sociologists believe about the rise of lone-parenthood?
It is a result of over-reliance on government support.
56
What were the findings of Charles Murray (1990)? ⚫️
Generous welfare support makes (young) lone-parents lazy and discourages nuclear families.
57
How much more likely are lone mothers to be living in poverty at any one time?
Twice as likely.
58
What are the percentages of children in the bottom 40% of household income?
Lone mothers vs Couples parents
- 69% of lone mothers
- 34% of couples with children.
59
What are the percentage(s) of children aged 5 - 15 in GB with mental health problems?
- 8% from intact two-parent families
- 16% from one-parent families
60
Stats of how being in a lone-parent household affect children’s education
- 3.3x more likely to have problems
- 50% more likely for difficulties with teachers
61
According to an analysis of 35 cases of fatal abuse, how many times higher were children at risk for living with their mother and an unrelated man?
70 times higher.
62
What are the counter arguments to the New Right's arguments?
Murray's thesis may be exaggerated; scapegoating single mothers does not address serious issues; growth of one-parent families reflects changing social attitudes.
63
What are the criticisms of the New Right?
**They exaggerate the decline of the nuclear family**
- Gender roles are socially determined
- Divorce being easier is beneficial
64
What did Chester argue about the New Right? 🔵
The New Right exaggerates cohabiting and single parent families; most children still live in nuclear family arrangements.
65
Why are women more likely to be awarded custody over men in divorce?
Traditional family ideology; ⅔ of divorces are initiated by women.
66
How likely are women awarded custody after a divorce?
90%.
67
Why are they called the nuclear family?
Nuclear refers to nucleus, the core idea.
68
What is a reconstituted marriage / families?
A family formed through social relationships such as marriage, usually referred to as step-families.
69
Why do more men remarry than women?
Women tend to be more disillusioned with marriage due to competing roles.
70
How much has cohabiting families increased between 2008 - 2018?
25.8%.
71
How much has same-sex couple families grown since 2015?
50%.
72
What family type was the most common in the UK in 2018 and what percentage?
Married and civil partner couple families (21%).
73
How prevalent is the lone parent family in the UK?
11%.
74
Positives of Lone Parent families
- Less violence
75
Negatives of Lone Parent families
- Higher poverty risk 🏚️
- Worse educational outcomes 📉
- Lack of male role model (New Right) 👻
- Social stigma and isolation 🧍
- More stress and emotional strain 😓
76
How prevalent is the reconstituted family in the UK?
11%.
77
How prevalent is cohabiting families in the UK?
46%.
78
What were the findings of Allen et al. (2011)? ⚪️
The sense of unity found in natural families is not necessarily evident in stepfamilies.
79
What were the findings of Young and Wilmott (1973)? 🔵
Family shouldn't have symmetry; should align with gender roles.
80
What is domestic division of labour?
Refers to the division of roles, responsibilities, and work tasks within a household.
81
What are segregated conjugal roles?
A clear division and separation between male and female roles.
82
What are integrated (or joint) conjugal roles?
Few divisions between male and female partners' roles; interchangeable and flexible.
83
What are conjugal roles?
The roles played by male and female partners in marriage or cohabiting relationships.
84
In what percentage of relationships has there been a trend towards equality in society?
93%.
85
What are the reasons for growing equality in the domestic division of labour?
- Improved living standards 🛋️
- Geographical mobility 🌏
- Empowerment of women 💪
- More women in employment 🏢
- Commercialisation housework 🧺
- Weaker gender identities 🚻
86
In what percentage of relationships has there been a trend towards equality in society?
93%
87
What are the reasons for growing equality in the domestic division of labour?
- Improved living standards 🏠
- Geographical mobility & the decline of the extended family 🚗
- Empowerment of women💃
- More women in employment 👩💻
- Commercialisation of housework 🍝
- Weaker gender identities 🚻
88
What were the findings of Gershuny (2000)? 💛
Increase in number of women in paid employment has led to some slow change in domestic labour division but only a small amount
89
What were the findings of Kan et. Al (2011)? 💛
- Women still do most 'regular' tasks in the home
- Men tend to do less regular 'masculine' tasks such as gardening and DIY
90
What makes domestic labour different from employment?
- It is monotonous and fragmented
- No starting & finishing hours or 'clocking on' and 'clocking off'
- Unpaid, and no fringe benefits such as pensions, sick pay or paid holidays
- It is based on ties of emotion and personal relationships. There is no employment contract, no 'rights at work' and no chance of going on strike
- It has little status — it is not seen as real work at all, with no recognition from others
- It is seen as the primary role for all women
- No qualifications are needed
- It is a privatised, isolated, solitary activity — there are no workmates
91
What did The European Social Survey show in 2010/11?
Even women in full-time paid work and living with a male partner were responsible, on average, for around 2/3 of the total time couples spent on housework.
92
What do women spend on average twice as long on each day?
Household and childcare tasks, such as household shopping, cooking the evening meal, cleaning, washing and ironing, looking after the children and caring for sick family members.
93
What did The 2008 British Social Attitudes Survey report about women with partners?
80% said that they 'always or usually did the laundry'.
94
What percentage of women do most of the cooking?
75%
95
How much of British men think housework is a 'woman's job'?
4/10
96
On average how much time do mothers spend on housework?
5 hours a day
97
What were the findings of Oakley (1974)? 💛
**Found using unstructured interviews:**
- Women felt dissatisfied about their role in the home
- Felt it was monotonous and felt lonely
- Women worked on average 77 hours per week
- "... symmetry remains a myth"
98
Who founded Triple Shift?
Duncombe and Marsden 🖤
99
What is the 'Triple Shift'?
Many women have to balance:
- Paid employment
- Unpaid housework & Childcare
- Emotional work
100
What were the findings of Cheal (2002)? 🟡
Family relationships can easily slip into damaging relationships, and love can often turn into hate in moments of intense emotion
101
What were the findings of Giddens (2006)? 🟢
It is the nature of family life that makes violence in families a common occurrence
- Family life is characterized by 'emotional intensity and personal intimacy'
102
How many women did the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report were victims of murder worldwide in 2012? (Including Domestic)
437,000
103
What were the findings of Gatrell et. Al (2011)? 🩷
**How women's careers are impacted:**
- More likely to follow their husbands job 🪜
- Social expectations are different - may be neglected 🚫
- Employers may be reluctant to invest in training 🏋️♂️
- Younger women may be viewed as 'unreliable' (maternity) 🤰
- Time off: face discrimination 😔
- Child-rearing 👩🍼
- More likely to give up paid work to care for children 🚸
104
What sociological explanations are there for the 'Dark' side of the family life?
- Family is often considered 'private' and therefore hidden ⛺️
- Close intimacy can lead to the mixing of 'love' and 'hate' ☯️
- Isolation from extended family can increase family intensity ❤️🔥
- As an economic unit, money can cause power imbalances and conflict ⚖️
- Gender roles 🚻
- External influences eg. media 📱
- Men hold power over 'major' decisions due to being financial provider 💸
105
What type of feminists believe domestic violence is a way of exercising patriarchal power over women?
Radical Feminists
106
What type of feminists believe structural factors play significant roles in domestic violence?
Marxist Feminists
107
What type of feminists believe legislations need reform to give women more power?
Liberal Feminist
108
What were the findings of Hanley and Schecter (1995)? 🖤
Through domestic and sexual violence men gain control over women's actions, feelings and thoughts which keeps them in a position of power
109
What were the findings of Dobash & Dobash (1992)? 🖤
Political and social institutions (eg. criminal justice system) 'tolerate' violence against women
110
What were the findings of Ansley? ❤️
**Women are the takers of shit**
- Absorbing male anger caused by capitalist exploitation
- Protect system from class conflict
111
Most of the attributes and expectations upon children are...
Socially constructed, not biological
112
What were the findings of Postman (1994)? 🟡
- Due to exposure to adult issues and interests, childhood is disappearing and children in society are increasingly moving towards adult status.
- Childhood was only 'invented' once there was mass literacy however modern technology has allowed children more access to the adult world
113
What were the findings of Jenks (2005)? 🟢
Technological changes haven’t erased childhood; instead, they have made parents more protective, leading to “paranoid parenting” and stronger safeguarding policies to shield children.
114
What were the findings of Palmer? ⚫️
**Toxic childhood syndrome**
- Modern life (tech, junk food, pressure) is damaging children’s physical, mental, and emotional well-being.
115
In 2011 how much of children helped an older family member use the internet?
90%
116
What were the findings of Cunningham? 📈
Spending power of children has lessened the difference between adults and children?
117
What is Demography?
the study of the characteristics of human populations, such as their size and structure and how these change over time.
118
What is globalisation?
The processes leading to the permanent intertwining of the global with the local, and the way, for example, global products might be adapted to fit local cultural needs.
119
What are the effects of globalisation?
- More undocumented workers 📑
- More asylum seekers 🧕🏽
- Greater cultural diversity 🌈
- Changing families ➡️
120
What are the reasons for the decline in death rate and infant mortality rate, and increasing life expectancy?
- Improved hygiene, sanitation and medicine
- Higher living standards
- Health education
- Improved working conditions
- Public health and welfare
121
What are the impacts of lower birth rates on the family?
- Nuclear family
- beanpole family
- Smaller disposable families
122
What are the impacts of lower death rates on the family?
- More time with family
- Socialisation
- Living with more members (grandparents)
- Free babysitting
- Care for elderly
123
Name three pieces of data that suggest the UK has an aging population.
- There were more young people in 1901 compared to now
- People aged 60-80 have increased since 1901
- People in 40s outnumber young people
124
What is increasing life expectancy caused by? (UK)
- Improved working environments
- Improvements in healthcare
- Understanding of diet
- Exercise
- better educational standards
125
What is Decreasing fertility rates caused by? (UK)
- Increasing cost of child-rearing 💲
- Contraception availability 🚧
- Empowerment of women 🚻
- Increased wealth 📈
126
What are the Advantages of an Aging Population?
- Boost to the economy
- More social cohesion and community involvement
- Less crime
- Family support
127
What are the Disadvantages of an Aging Population?
- A growing burden of dependence and the 'pensions time-bomb'
- More poverty and family hardship
- A loss of skill and experience from the labour force
- More pensioner one-person households
- More ill-health and disability
- Family stress
- More work for women
- Housing shortages
128
What is functional fit theory?
Family evolves to fit the needs of society
129
What was the 1969 Divorce Act?
Made divorce easier
130
What is the Civil Partnerships Act?
Same sex couples have same legal rights as heterosexual couples
131
What did Parsons argue about the functions of the nuclear family?
Primary socialisation and stabilisation of adult personalities ('warm bath').
132
What is the Functional Fit theory?
As society changes, the family adapts. Industrial society led to the rise of nuclear family.
133
What were the findings of Young and Wilmott (1973) about family development? 🔵
Family has become more symmetrical and nuclear post-industrialisation.
134
What is the New Right perspective on the family?
Supports the traditional nuclear family as ideal; sees others as problematic.
135
What do Marxists believe about the family and capitalism?
Family supports capitalism through inheritance, socialisation, and consumption.
136
What do Feminists argue about the family?
Family is a site of patriarchy where gender inequality is reproduced.
137
What did Greer (2000) say about family? 🖤
Family oppresses women; solution is female independence and separatism.
138
What did Somerville (2000) argue? 💛
Progress has been made in women’s rights etc, but more reform needed (e.g., flexible working).
139
What is the difference between liberal, radical, and Marxist feminists?
Liberal: legal reforms. Radical: patriarchy is systemic. Marxist: capitalism and patriarchy work together to oppress women.
140
What are criticisms of the Functionalist view of family?
Ignores diversity and conflict; too positive.
141
What are criticisms of the Marxist view of family?
Overemphasises class and ignores family benefits and gender.
142
What are criticisms of the Feminist view of family?
Overgeneralises female experience; doesn't account for choice and agency.
143
What are the Rapoports’ five types of family diversity?
- Organisational 🗂️
- Cultural ⛩️
- Class 💶
- Life-stage 🌓
- Generational 🌳
144
What is the neo-conventional family?
A dual-earner nuclear family — an updated traditional model (Chester).
145
What is Chester's main argument? 🔵
Family diversity is exaggerated; most aspire to nuclear family.
146
What is the ‘individualisation thesis’?
Traditional roles lose influence; relationships are based on personal fulfilment.
147
What is a 'pure relationship'? (Giddens)
Based on emotional intimacy and choice, not obligation.
148
What is a 'negotiated family'? (Beck)
Roles are decided by negotiation and choice, not tradition.
149
What does Smart (2007) argue about personal life? 🟡
Family is not always biological — includes friends, pets, etc.
150
What is a beanpole family?
Multi-generational but fewer horizontal ties (a result of ageing population).
151
What are sandwich generations?
Middle-aged adults caring for both children and elderly parents.
152
What were the findings of Aries on childhood? 📈
Childhood is a social construction — didn't exist in medieval times.
153
What is the March of Progress view on childhood?
Children’s lives have steadily improved; they are more protected and valued.
154
What is the conflict view on childhood?
Inequalities still exist (e.g., class, gender); childhood is not ideal for all.
155
What are age patriarchy and control over children? (Gittins) 🩷
Adults dominate children; control over time, space, bodies, access to resources.
156
What is toxic childhood? (Palmer) 🖤
Modern tech and consumerism harm children’s development and wellbeing.
157
What did Postman argue about childhood?
Childhood is disappearing due to media eroding boundaries.
158
What are criticisms of Postman?
Jenks argues childhood is changing, not disappearing.
159
What is the ‘child liberationist’ view?
Children should be freed from adult control and given more rights.
160
How do social policies affect families? (Donzelot) 🟠
Policies are a form of state surveillance and control over poor families.
161
What are Functionalist views of social policy?
Policies help families function (e.g., NHS, education, welfare).
162
What are Marxist views of social policy?
Policies maintain capitalism (e.g., welfare stops rebellion, supports workforce).
163
What do Feminists say about social policies?
Many reinforce traditional gender roles (e.g., maternity leave > paternity).
164
What are examples of social policy affecting family structure?
Divorce Reform Act (1969)
Civil Partnership Act (2004)
Child Benefit Act (2005)
165
What is modern individualism?
- Emphasises personal choice, independence, and self-reliance.
- Linked to Afro-Caribbean families — more lone parenthood and flexible structures (Berthoud, 2001).
