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Theories & Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Structuralism?

A

Perspective that is concerned with the overall structure of society and focus on how institutions like education, mass media and the family constrain or limit individualistic behaviour.

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2
Q

What are the features of structural approaches?

A
  • Behaviour and values of an individual are the result of social forces external to the individual. They have little control or choice; individual is seen as a puppet of society 🌅
  • Focusses on the social structure at a macro approach (Marxism and Functionalism) 🌍
  • Positivism is their main methodological approach and individual’s state of mind and meanings are not seen as relevant 🧘‍♀️
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3
Q

What is Functionalism?

A

Sees society as stable harmonious integrated system with social order maintained by consensus

  • Rooted in work of Durkheim and refined by Parsons. Functionalism was at its height of popularity in 50-60s but is now seen as inadequate and old fashioned.
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4
Q

What are the key ideas of the Functionalist perspective?

A
  1. Society has social structures made up of shared norms & values passed on through institutions. 🏛️
  2. Institutions: positive functions, socialisation promote value consensus, integration, & preventing anomie ⚖️
  3. Scientific, macro approach 🌍
  4. Society is a system (organs) 🫁
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5
Q

What did Durkheim believe?

A

Individuals need to be restrained - individuals have a biological tendency to be naturally selfish and look out for themselves and that it was up to society to regulate these naturally selfish desires ultimately for the benefit of all. Too much freedom is bad for both the individual and society.

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6
Q

What did Durkheim argue about social solidarity?

A

Societies need to create a sense of social solidarity - which is making individuals feel as if they part of something bigger and teaching them the standards of acceptable behaviour, this will restrain the selfish tendencies (moral regulation).

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7
Q

How does solidarity differ in primitive and advanced industrial societies?

A

Primitive (pre-industrial) societies
- Ppl lived in small local communities w/ shared norms, values & lifestyles.
- Solidarity based on similarity (mechanical solidarity)

Advanced industrial societies
- Ppl have specialised roles & live in larger, complex, & diverse societies
Solidarity based on interdependence
(organic solidarity)

  • As society becomes less local and more individualised, institutions play a greater role in maintaining moral regulation and social cohesion.
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8
Q

What did Durkheim argue about the decline of religion?

A

Given the decline of religion, education would instead provide society with the necessary moral regulation, as education simultaneously teaches the diverse skills required for an advanced division of labour whilst providing shared norms and values.

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9
Q

What did Durkheim argue about industrial societies?

A

In advanced industrial society the number of specialised tasks increase and the division of labour becomes more complex. Individuals become less self-sufficient and more dependent on a larger number of people that they do not know (welfare state). So modern societies need to find a way of achieving solidarity based on difference rather than solidarity based on similarity.

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10
Q

What is the Organic Analogy (Parsons)?

A

Parsons saw society as working like a human body, arguing that institutions in society were like organs of the body.

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11
Q

What are the positive functions performed by institutions according to Parsons?

A
  • Promote value consensus
  • Family pass on the basic norms & values of our society - early socialisation; the stabilisation of adult personalities. 🧑‍🧑‍🧒‍🧒
  • Education integrates ppl into wider society - provide sense of belonging & identity to wider society. 👫
  • Other institutions regulate behaviour through social sanctions; prevent crime & deviance escalating 🫆
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12
Q

What is the idea of Functional Prerequisites?

A

Each society has what Parsons calls functional prerequisites (basic needs a society must meet to function) and the various institutions work to provide these basic needs.

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13
Q

What are the four prerequisites Parsons identified? 🥐

A
  • Goal Attainment - there must be priorities and goals in all societies and the government must provide the means for this to happen. 🥅
  • Adaptation - Society must provide the basic material necessities for humans this is done through a functioning and efficient economy 📈
  • Integration - Social cohesion with everyone having shared goals and a sense of belonging to that society 👫
  • Latency - Society must minimise social mentions and conducts which might prevent individuals and society working together 🤝
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14
Q

What is Structural differentiation?

A

Refers to the way that more specialised institutions emerge and take over functions that were once performed by a single institution.

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15
Q

How did Merton disagree with Parsons?

A
  • Disagreed how all social institutions provided positive functions
  • Dealing with such a large social structures, something will go wrong (dysfunction).
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16
Q

What are the two functions Merton identified?

A

Manifest
- The recognised and intended outcome of the action conducted by an individual, group or institution
Latent
- The unintended outcome.

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17
Q

What are the strengths of Functionalism?

A
  • Like Marxism, a reasonable theory to explain the workings of society ⚙️
  • Highlights how social structures shape individual behaviour 🛕
  • Explains how social order & stability are maintained through shared norms & values 👫
  • Shows how institutions adapt to change over time ⏳
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18
Q

What are the criticisms of Functionalism?

A
  • Too deterministic 🧭
  • PM argue it’s a metanarrative that don’t work in contemp society 🙅‍♀️
  • Doesn’t explain rapid social change 🔄
  • Only Merton looks at dysfunctional aspects of institutions ⛓️‍💥
  • Assumes value consensus, Marxists: consensus only by bourgeoisie. 💰
  • Ignores inequalities in society 📊
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19
Q

What is Modernity and Modernism?

A

The era where rational thought and logic were applied to understand, develop and organise society (around 1700s).

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20
Q

What are the four main characteristics of modern society?

A
  • Nation State - A geographical area ruled by a powerful central state 🏛️
  • Capitalism - Private ownership of the means of production and the use of wage labourers💰
  • Rationality - Science and technology take over religion as the dominant way of thinking 🧬
  • Individualism - Greater personal freedom and the break from tradition and ascribed status ⛓️‍💥
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21
Q

What do Postmodernists argue about how society is changing?

A

Postmodernists argued that society was changing too fast for structural theories to provide adequate explanations of society.

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22
Q

What are the key changes that have accelerated the transition from Modernity to Postmodernity?

A
  • Secularisation - Religious pluralism
  • Globalisation
  • The fall of the metanarrative - Ideas
    now more fragmented.
  • Rise of consumer culture - Identities are based on products that an individual consumes.
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23
Q

What were the findings of Bauman?
Post Modernist 🟡

A
  • Liquid modernity - Society is now unpredictable, chaotic and uncertain due to constant change.
  • Structures such as the state, family, class etc. are breaking down.
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24
Q

What is the relativist position according to Bauman?

A

All views are true for the people who hold them, no one has a monopoly on the truth any longer. Truth is relative to the individual.

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25
What were the findings of Lyotard? 🟡
Metanarratives and the 'myth of truth' - Metanarratives don't fit in contemporary society and people no longer believe in the 'myth of truth'. All knowledge is now equally valid.
26
What were the findings of Baudrillard on Choice, Identity and Consumption? 🟡
Pick 'n' mix society - Societal structures (family, education etc.) are fragmented and weakening, so have less constraints on people that structural theories suggest.
27
What were the findings of Baudrillard on Media-saturated Society? 🟡
- Suggested the media present what he calls **Simulacra** (images which appear to reflect events in the real world but are distanced from reality). - He coined this a **Hyperreality** as the media create a world in which reality and fiction are difficult to separate.
28
What were the findings of Baudrillard on You are what you buy? 🟡
Postmodern society resembles a shopping centre where people can shop around buying whatever they like. Trying and testing whatever identity they want - consumer identity.
29
What are the pros of Post Modernism?
- Relevant in comparison to traditional theories that are considered outdated. 🗓️ - It can't necessarily be used within politics 🏛️ - Not deterministic and acknowledges choice 🔣 - Acknowledges the changes in society such as the increasingly complex factors involved in creating identity 🪢
30
What are the cons of Post Modernism?
- Contradicts itself as it is a metanarrative - Doesn't focus on the causes of inequalities such as poverty 📊 - Marxists such as Harvey argue that their theories can be explained by Marxism ⚒️ - Large proportions are not based on factual research—theorists don't back up their points. 🔙
31
What were the findings of Giddens and Sutton (2013)?
**Late Modernity** - They don't dispute the changes postmodernists identify. However, they suggest that we are not in a 'new era' of Postmodernism, but just a development of modernity.
32
How does Giddens categorize late modernity?
Disembedding - We no longer need face to face contact to communicate with each other. Reflexivity - We are continually re-evaluating our ideas and theories.
33
What were the findings of Beck (1992)?
Risk Society - In contemporary society, we are in a new society, which faces new dangers than before - mainly due to Science.
34
What are the pros of Late Modernity?
- It provides a more contemporary perspective that is different to Postmodernism. - A reflexive approach can lead to the continued development of society and help to reduce risks.
35
What are the cons of Late Modernity?
- Reflexivity suggests we can all re-shape our lives and minimise the risks, but a poor person living in a heavily polluted area may not be able to afford to move elsewhere. - Rustin critiques Beck and argues that capitalism is the greatest risk to society.
36
What are Values?
Beliefs, opinions and prejudices that people hold, which are influenced by the societal structures that we belong to.
37
What is the Values Debate?
Whether these values should influence the research conducted or not. Is it possible or desirable for sociologists to study society in a completely value-free, objective way, or will subjectivity inevitably be involved?
38
What is Value Freedom?
Idea that the beliefs and prejudices of a researcher should not influence the way research is carried out and evidence is interpreted.
39
What is Value Committed?
Idea that the researchers make a point of acknowledging their values and how they may influence their research.
40
What is the Values Debate?
Whether these values should influence the research conducted or not.
41
What is Value Committed?
Idea that the researchers make a point of instilling their values into their research, actively taking sides by adopting the interests of individuals or groups.
42
What is Subjectivity?
Idea that because sociologists are part of society, their values will affect the research in some way.
43
What is Objectivity?
Where research is conducted with a totally open mind and complete detachment from those being researched - there is no personal influence such as feelings, opinions and beliefs affecting the research.
44
What is the Mid-position?
Sociology can't avoid values having some influence, but they can't be allowed to affect the research process.
45
What are the three main positions in the Value-free Debate?
- Sociology can and should be value-free - Sociology can't be value-free - Sociology should be value-free
46
Explain why Value-freedom is desirable and possible and who argues it.
Positivists such as Comte and Durkheim argue that it is possible to study society objectively, just like scientists study the natural world.
47
How would Value-freedom research work?
- Researchers use methods like those used on natural sciences - Society is made of structures, independent to the researcher (social facts), these can be separate from researchers' values - Using social facts and quantitative data, it's possible to test theories that can be replicated to produce reliable & valid data.
48
Explain why Value-freedom is not possible and who argues it.
Mainly interpretivists argue that it is impossible for any natural or social scientists to avoid the influence of values completely.
49
Explain why Value-freedom is not desirable and who argues it.
Researchers shouldn't be value-free and they should be value-committed to improve the lives of many.
50
What were the findings of Gouldner (1971)?
- It's not possible to have value-freedom in sociology, and it shouldn't be aimed for.
51
What were the findings of Becker (1967)?
Challenged sociologists to ask themselves the question of whose side are we on?
52
What were the findings of Weber?
Saw the essential role for values when conducting research, arguing they are extremely relevant in choosing what to research, interpreting data, and deciding the use of findings.
53
What is Giddens' theory of Structuration (1986)?
- A two-way process by which people are constrained by society, but can at the same time take action to shape and change them.
54
What is Structural Theorists' evaluation of the Integrated Approach?
- Overstate the ability of individuals to change society's social structures.
55
What is Social Action Theorists' evaluation of the Integrated Approach?
- Underestimate the ability of individuals to change society.
56
What were the findings of Popper (1935)?
The Scientific method includes hypothesis formation, falsification, the use of empirical evidence, replication, accumulation of evidence, prediction, theory formation, and scrutiny.
57
What is a Social policy?
Packages of plans and actions adopted by national and local government or various voluntary agencies to solve social problems or achieve other goals that are seen as important.
58
What is a Social Problem?
Something that is seen as being harmful to society in some way, and needs something doing to sort it out.
59
What is a Sociological Problem?
A sociological problem is any social or theoretical issue that needs explaining.
60
Giddens: 9 ways sociology contributes to social policy
- Providing an awareness of cultural differences - Providing self-awareness and understanding - Changing assumptions - Providing a theoretical framework - Providing practical professional knowledge - Identifying social problems - Providing the evidence - Identifying the unintended consequences of policies - Assessing the results
61
What were the findings of McNeill (1986)?
Suggests that what becomes defined as a social problem will depend on individuals or groups being able to whip up enough support among those with power.
62
What were the findings of Davies (2008)?
- Points out that debates about social policy do not take place in a vacuum, but have an ideological basis to them.
63
What were the findings of Davies?
Government's Coordinated Prostitution Strategy of 2006 was highly selective in its use of social research in order to bolster support for its own hostile view of prostitution.
64
What were the names of Tarki?
Hungary: 68% were against people from Piresa
65
What is Interpretivism?
Interpretivism focuses on understanding the subjective meanings and motives behind human behaviour. It uses qualitative data to uncover how individuals construct their social reality.
66
What is the Hawthorne effect?
he alteration of behavior by study participants due to their awareness of being observed, which can affect the validity of research findings.
67
Name the practical issues in sociological research
* Time * Cost * Access to participants * Researcher skills * Characteristics of the study group
68
Name the ethical issues in sociological research
* Informed consent * Confidentiality * Deception * Harm to participants * Right to withdraw.
69
Name the Theoretical issues in sociological research
* Includes reliability * Validity * Representativeness * Influence of values on research

Sociology (6 decks)

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