Farming Flashcards
(167 cards)
1
Q
what type of fermentation is used in different types of herbivores
A
foregut - ruminant
hind-gut - equids / lagomorph
non-fermentation - rodents
2
Q
what factors make up gross energy
A
faecal energy and digestible energy
3
Q
what factors make up digestible energy
A
urine
metabolisable
gaseous
4
Q
what factors make up metabolisable energy
A
net energy
heat increment
5
Q
what makes up net energy
A
for production (energy retention for work / milk / meat) for maintenance
6
Q
what factors contribute to the total heat production of an animal
A
the heat increment
maintenance
7
Q
what percentage dehydration leads to serious consequence an death
A
10% = serious 15-20% = death
8
Q
what are the sources of involuntary water loss
A
respiration
perspiration
9
Q
what are the 2 sources of water
A
ingestion (food/liquid)
metabolism of water through oxidation process
10
Q
what is ad libitum
A
open access to water at all times
11
Q
what are the 2 main classifications of carbohydrates
A
sugars (monosaccharides / ogliosaccharides) non sugars (polysaccharides / complex CHO)
12
Q
what are some examples of monosaccharides
A
glucose
fructose
mannose
13
Q
what 2 monosaccharides are required in milk production
A
glucose
galactose
14
Q
what are some examples of disaccharides
A
sucrose
lactose
15
Q
what are some examples of polysaccharides
A
cellulose
starch
glycogen
16
Q
what are the rate limiting amino acids in milk production
A
lysine
methionine
17
Q
what are essential amino acids
A
ones that cannot be produced by the animals body so must be consumed
18
Q
how do you calculate the crude protein of a feed
A
6.25 x total nitrogen content
19
Q
what percentage nitrogen does crude protein contain
A
16%
20
Q
what is the protein standard for horses
A
digestible crude protein
21
Q
what is the protein standard for pigs / poultry
A
total ideal protein supply
22
Q
what is the protein standard for ruminants
A
metabolisable protein supple
23
Q
what is the metabolisable protein system in a ruminant
A
separated into rumen degradable protein (slow/quick digestion) / un-degradable protein (digested in the small intestine)
24
Q
what type of protein enters and leaves the rumen in digestion of rumen degradable protein
A
crude protein enters and microbial crude protein leaves and is then digested by the animal
25
what is produced from non glycerol based lipids
prostaglandins
| steroids
26
what structural products are formed from glycerol based lipids
glycolipids
| phospholipids
27
what li[ids are required in an animals diet
polyunsaturated fatty acids
omega 6
linoleic / leinoleic acid
28
what is the function of omega 6
prostaglandin production
29
what is the function of polyunsaturated fatty acids
maintaining membrane fluidity
30
why can ruminants not digest high levels of fat
it causes damage to the rumen microflora
31
name two antioxidants
vitamin E
| selenium
32
name some fat soluble vitamins
retinol (vitamin A)
| vitamin E
33
where is vitamin K produced
microbes in the hindgut
34
name some water soluble vitamins
B1 thiamine
B2 riboflavin
vitamin C
35
what is forage
the aerial constituent of a plant fed to livestock (leaves / grass / straw)
36
when is the maximum production of forage
late spring/summer
37
why is harvest seasonal surplus important
for feeding animals in winter
38
what is conserve
drying / pickling forage to store the product for longer
39
what are the types of pasture
```
rough grazing (heather etc present)
permanent pasture (ryegrass)
rotational grass (short term ley crop)
```
40
what plants would be present in a sown pasture
grasses e.g. ryegrass
| legumes e.g. white clover
41
what is the importance of legumes in a pasture
fixing atmospheric nitrogen for the animals consumption / for other plants to grow
42
what is grass production dependant on
pH
climate
irrigation / drainage
43
what affect does age have on the composition of grass
decrease in protein / fat increase in cellulose
44
what is lignin
basically wood - undigestible
45
what is the metabolisable energy of grass
7-13 MJ/kg of dry matter
46
what is the result of animals eating older grass (lower quality)
more fibrous
less energy dense
less palatable
lower production
47
what are the features of a forage maize crop
large amounts of feed can be produced per hectare high starch (therefore high digestible matter) low protein but not frost tolerant
48
what are the features of a whole crop cereal crop
wheat / barley / oats
made into silage
low protein and moderate energy
49
what are the features of root crops
beets / swedes / kale
| good for winter feeding particularly up in the north of UK
50
how is forage conserved
drying
| ensiling
51
describe the process of silage
fermenting the forage in absence of oxygen - should be left to dry for a day before
52
what changes occur during silage fermentation
water soluble carbohydrates converted to lactic acid lowering the pH killing the bacteria creating a stable long storage product
53
what are the nutritional targets for grass silage
30% dry matter
| with a stable pH of around 4.6 and low ammonia nitrogen
54
what is aerobic spoilage of silage
yeast / mould growth making product unpalatable and toxic
55
what are the downsides of hay production
needs 4-5 days of dry weather / artificially dry (expensive)
56
what can cause nutritional loss to hay
enzymes / mold
mechanical damage (leaves broken)
leaching / oxidation
57
what are the advantages of hay vs silage
more palatable
easier to transport
less contamination risk e.g. botulism / clostridia
58
what his haylage
in between hay and silage - higher water than hay but lower content
59
what is straw and what is it used for
stems of wheat / oat
| bedding / forage (low nutrition high fibre)
60
what are concentrates
energy dense high protein feed
61
why is roughage needed in a diet with concentrates
to avoid acidosis
62
what are the types of concentrate
straights - one grain type / food industry bi product
| mixes - variety e.g. muesli
63
why are some concentrates processed
to increase bioavailability
64
what are some conditions associated with forage
mineral imbalance
metabolic disorders
poisonous plant consumption
nitrate poisoning
65
describe climatic animal housing
houses with no insulation and natural ventilation with temperatures close to ambient
66
what are the benefits to climatic animal housing
least expensive
| most versatile
67
describe controlled environment animal housing
- large
- well insulated
- thermostatically controlled mechanical ventilation
- heavily stocked
68
what are the positives and negatives of controlled environment animal housing
```
highly automated (less staff needed)
expensive
```
69
describe micro environment animal housing
small modules
naturally ventilated
insulated
temp. regulated by heat from animal stocks
70
what is the thermo-neutral zone
the temperature range where external temperature does not effect metabolic rate
71
what is the upper critical temperature
the temperature at which if exceeded heat stress occurs e.g. decreasing food intake / holding wings away from body
72
what is the lower critical temperature
the temperature at which if dropped below cold stress occurs e.g huddling together
73
which animals have a narrow thermoneutral zone
pigs
| poultry
74
which animals have a wide thermoneutral zone
ruminants
75
how do pigs / poultry maintain homeothermy and where should they be housed because of this
adjusting feed intake (metabolisable energy)
| housed in controlled environments
76
how do ruminants maintain homeothermy and where should they be housed because of this
through insulate qualities of coat / behaviour (no change in food intake)
house in naturally ventilated environments
77
what are the downsides of housing / farming intensification
increase in complexity = increase cost of materials / energy / labour / sustainability concerns
78
what factors must increase to offset cost increase of intensification
efficiency
number of animals
production
automation
79
what are the potential impacts of poor housing on animals
injury
| disease spread
80
how does poor housing design / management lead to disease spread
poor ventilation = resp. diseases
| poor cleaning = infection
81
what are the potential behavioural impacts of poor housing on animals
horses - stereotypy
| pigs - tailbiting
82
what factors should be considered when designing effective housing
```
temp / thermodynamics
social grouping
lighting
cleanliness
air quality / ventilation
biosecurity
insulation
flooring / bedding
```
83
what are the consequences of low air temperature on energy
higher proportion of ME is used to replace heat lost so production efficiency is decreased
84
what percentage of ME is used in tissue growth
25%
85
what are the stages of heat stress behaviour
```
restlessness
lethargic
brief frenzied activity
convulsions
death
```
86
what are the clinical signs of heat stress
```
dyspnoea (cant breathe)
tachycardia
cyanosis
weak pulse
pyrexia (fever)
```
87
what you expect from a post mortem of an animal which died of heat stress
blood stained froth in nostrils
| lung oedema
88
how do homeothermic animals maintain temperature homeostasis
produce heat - huddling / sheltering / metabolising energy
| lose heat - respiration / evaporation / panting / wallowing
89
how do buildings loose heat and how is this controlled
convection -air in contact with surfaces
conduction - through floor / roof
radiation - radiant heat from building surfaces
controlled via insulation and ventialtion
90
how is the insulate capacity of a material defined (k)
thermal conductivity
| thermal transmittance
91
what is the thermal transmittance (U)
rate of heat transferred through a material per meter per degree of temperature difference
92
how do you calculate the insulate capacity
inverse of thermal transmittance / thermal conductivity
93
how are buildings insulated
lining with materials with low thermal conductivity - rockwool / expanded polystyrene / polyurethane foam
94
what are the downsides of using rockwool insulation
settles with age
susceptible to vermin
needs waterproof barrier
95
what are the downsides of using expanded polystyrene insulation
flammable with toxic fumes
needs waterproof barrier
susceptible to vermin
96
what are the benefits of using polyurethane foam insulation
any shape
water resistant
non toxic
rodent proof
97
how do you prevent heat loss through radiation in a building
using reflective materials inside
98
how would you prevent heat loss through conduction in a building
making it closed environment controlling it through ventilation
99
why is effective ventilation important
humidity regulation
temp regualtion
air hygiene - fresh air / aerial pollutant removal
100
describe natural / passive ventilation
the stack effect
| gap in the top of building that allows rising warm air to be released
101
what is the downside to using passive ventilation
under ventilates in summer and vice versa in winter so can only be used in mild climates
102
what are the 2 types of mechanical ventilation
negative pressure / postive pressure
103
describe negative pressure ventilation
fans on one side expel air creating a partial vacuum which draws fresh outside air into the house through inlets
104
what are the consequences of mis-sized air inlets in a negative pressure ventilation system
too big = draft
| too small = does not fully ventilate the building
105
what are the advantages of negative pressure ventilation
cold air mixes with cold air before reaching animals so they do not have temp shock
106
describe positive pressure ventilation
fans push air into building forcing hot animal air out of the building distributing heat / mixes air before reaching the animals
107
why is ventilation an important factor in animal temperature control
removes warm air
| allows animals to effectively use evaporation (needs air movement)
108
what speed should wind not exceed to reduce the effect of wind chill
30cm/second
109
what is the minimum ventilation rate
2 m cubed per tonne of food consumed per day (5 whole house air changes per hour)
110
how do you calculate the temperature lift
required temperature - outside temperature
111
what happens when the temperature lift figure is large
heat produced by animals is not sufficient to keep themselves warm = cold stress
112
what is the relative humidity
% saturation of the air with water vapour
113
how do you calculate relative humidity
(mass of water vapour x 100) / mass of water vapour when saturated
114
what can be the consequence of high temperatures and high humidity
evaporative heat loss impaired so heat stress can be exacerbated
115
what can be the consequence of low temperatures and high humidity
increased thermal conductivity of air so increased chill
116
what are the negative effects of high humidity
```
dermatitis
corrosion
formation of ammonium hydroxide
reduce insulation effectiveness
increases survival rate of microorganisms
forming surface water
```
117
what are some potential air pollutants
noxious gas
dust
microorganisms
allergens
118
what can occur if pollutants are not removed by ventilation
sedimentation
| inhalation
119
what are some common gaseous pollutants and their consequences
ammonia / CO /CO2 / methane (ruminants)
| compromises respiratory tract defence systems
120
how is ammonia generated
microbial fermentation of excrement and urine
121
what are the ammonia occupational exposure limits
livestock max 20ppm
| humans 25 ppm for 8 hours
122
what is the effect of ammonia when absorbed into body surfaces
hyperplasia of epithelial lining
micro-abscesses
hyper-secretion by goblet cells (increased mucus layer)
impaired ciliary function
123
what produces hydrogen sulphide in a farm setting
anaerobic bacteria in slurry. tanks - olfactory perception reduces with exposure
124
what can be the result of exposure to high levels of hydrogen sulphide
respiratory paralysis
nose irritation
death
125
what can be the result of exposure to high levels of CO2
headaches
nausea
anaesthesia (accumulates in slurry pits as heavier than air)
126
how is methane formed in a farm setting
microbial methanogensis from anaerobic respiration in the ruminant gut
127
what can be some sources of dust
bedding
feed
dry faeces
microbial flora/spores
128
what activities cause increased aerial dust burden
mucking out
129
where are large dust particles deposited in the body
upper resp. tract due to impaction (resp. walls due to anatomical branching and the slow moving nature of the particles) - inspirable particles
130
where are small dust particles deposited within the body
lower resp tract through sedimentation - respirable particles
131
how do dust / aerial microbes effect particle retention time in the lungs
allows particles to be retained in the lungs as the microbial endotoxins compromise mucociliary clearance / alveolar macrophage activity
132
what is the minimum lighting in a pig house
40 lux
133
which animals prefer high /low lighting
```
cow = bright so milking areas should be well lit to encourage entrance
pig = dim - may avoid light areas
```
134
what can be the result of high light intensity
aversive to eyes
135
what can be the result of low light intensity
animals are unable to perform normal behaviour e.g. finding food / social interaction
136
what kind of light should be provided for prey species
darker sheltered areas to make them feel safe or for feeding
137
how does day length affect the reproductive system (photoperiodicity)
affects the melatonin production with modulates the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis
138
which animals reproductive behaviour is simulated by an increase in day length
horses
cows
pigs
birds
139
which animals reproductive behaviour is simulated by an decrease in day length
sheep
| deer
140
how does light intensity effect photoperiodicity
need 200+ Lux for mammals reproductive behaviour but only 10+ Lux for birds
141
why would manipulating the photoperiod be useful
improving milk production volumes / allowing young to be born on a timeline convenient to the farmer
142
what is the dark period and why is it important
sleep time - inhibits melatonin production / disruption of resting behaviour causing stress
143
what are the 2 types of light receptors
rods - most sensitive and to yellow
| cones - less sensitive with specific pigments so they can only see a restricted spectrum of light
144
what part of the light spectrum are cows / pigs most sensitive to
blue as they are dichromatic - blue and green
145
what are the implications of differing light frequency recognition for animals vs humans
animals may not be able to distinguish items - exacerbated under artificial light as they are designed for human eyes
146
how would non-UV emitting artificial lighting negatively affect livestock
birds dependant on UV. for recognition / mate selection / sexual behaviour = increased stress (corticosterone)
impaired vitamin D / melanin synthesis (mainly affects birds and reptiles)
147
what are the effects of exposure to flickering light
headaches
neurological disorder
visual effects
148
what is the flicker fusion threshold
frequency at which an intermittent (flickering) light appears constant - animals may be higher so flicker may be visible
149
what features should animal housing flooring have
```
non-slip
comfortable
hygienic
free draining
abrasive (to cause footwear) but not injuring
```
150
why is there a need for cubicles for ambulatory (grazing) species when they are not in a straw yard
they defaecate then walk on with no specific toilet area so this prevents them from doing this in their sleeping areas
151
what is the most common type of agricultural flooring
solid / slatted concrete
152
what are the advantages of concrete flooring
```
variable abrasiveness
can be moulded
durable
inexpensive
water impermeable
strong under compression
```
153
what are the disadvantages of concrete flooring
poor physical comfort
slippery when worn
difficult to sterilise
can be very abrasive
154
what are the potential injuries associated with concrete flooring
bruising to sole of the foot
hygroma / bursitis (fluid buildup) from lying on hard floor
traumatic / chronic abrasions
155
what are the benefits of slatted concrete floors
separates excrement bulk from stock / reduces heat loss via conduction / provide adequate footwear
156
what are the disadvantages of using slatted concrete floors
slot size is critical to avoiding injury
no slot size suits all stocks
cannot clean
incompatible with bedding
higher stocking density required / poor physical comfort
157
what other kind of slats are used in animal housing and for which animals
metal - cows
weld mesh - pigs /poultry
plastic - pigs (but doesnt wear down feet)
wooden - poultry (but hard clean)
158
what physical features should you look for in an effective bedding
physical and thermal comfort
absorbent
hygienic
manipulative (for nesting / foraging / play)
159
what are the main types of bedding
straw
rubber
sand
wood shavings
160
describe straw bedding and its advantages / disadvantages
barley (will eat) / wheat
cheap if locally produced
but dusty if poorly made
high absorbency
161
how much straw is required for different animals per year
horse 3 tons
dairy cow 4 tons
beef cow 2tones
162
describe use of wood shavings as bedding
for horses / poultry
more expensive
high absorbency
163
describe the use of sand as a bedding material
dairy cow cubicles and laid over a porous substrate so that waste drains through
164
what are some disadvantages of sand bedding
have to maintain depth
difficult to dispose of
causes wear to slurry handling equipment
165
what are some advantage of sand bedding
long lasting
cool in summer
non-abrasive
inert (no fungal spores)
166
describe the use of hemp fibre as bedding
horses and small animals
very very absorbent
very expensive
no fungal spores
167
describe the use of rubber bedding material
good physical / thermal comfort
non slip
but no absorbency so other bedding has to be used
