Fascist Society 1922-40 (Complete)

Question 1

What were the aims of fascistisation?

Answer 1

-Mussolini set out to change Italians into fascists
-Indoctrinate the young & influence social habitats of adults + encourage anti-Semitism
-The ONB; 7 million children (1937) but no guarantee of creation of young fascists

Question 2

Fascistisation; how was it shown that adults were more resistant?

Answer 2

-Enjoyed OND activities
-‘Battle for births’ failed
-Women resisted attempts to exclude them from employment

Question 3

What were Mussolini’s aims?

Answer 3

-To adopt policies to secure positions of ‘Il Duce’
-1920s; desire to transform Italian society & character
-1930s; hatred for ‘Bourgeois mentality’ of Italians (stressed importance of family, religion, local loyalties & comfortable living). Wanted new Italians to place fascism & nation above everything
-Being tough/disciplined/physically + psychologically conditioning for war & obedient
-Wanted to penetrate every aspect of society but was neither systematic in his ideas nor prepared for unpopular policies in his ideas

Question 4

Mussolini’s aims; why did fascist policies begin to become unsuccessful?

Answer 4

Slowly began to alienate + not win over public/elites

Question 5

Education; what was Mussolini’s aim in education?

Answer 5

-Mussolini’s gov launched various initiatives & organisations to secure popular support for fascist rule
-Regime’s growing control of schools & universities was an important aspect of this drive to instil fascist values

Question 6

Education; what did 1923 reforms by a philosopher show and what were reactions to them?

Answer 6

-Focused on rigorous exams in prestigious schools attended by minority
-Showed continue dependence on conservative support
-Radical fascists dismayed

Question 7

Education; how did Mussolini change education in 1925?

Answer 7

-Dec; Mussolini instructed schools to educate young Italians to live according to the fascist revolution
-Followed by a purge of ‘politically incompatible’ teachers (many who survived purge remained committed to other political beliefs, simply safeguarded themselves & own interests)
-School curriculum hence a lot more ideological

Question 8

Education; how many history books were banned in all schools in 1926?

Answer 8

1/3

Question 9

Education; what did all primary & secondary school teachers have to do in 1929?

Answer 9

Swear an oath of loyalty to the regime

Question 10

Education; how long have all lectures & deans been PNF members in 1930?

Answer 10

At least 5 years

Question 11

Education; when was the fascist teachers’ regime association set up and what was required?

Answer 11

-1931
-Lecturers & deans had to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime (just 11/1230 declined)
-1937; membership became compulsory

Question 12

Education; what did all employed have to do in 1933?

Answer 12

-PNF membership compulsory condition for employment
-All university professors had to be PNF members

Question 13

Education; what did primary school teachers have to wear in classrooms in 1934?

Answer 13

Blackshirt uniforms

Question 14

Education; what did primary school textbooks depict in the late 1930s and why?

Answer 14

-Emphasised Italy’s civilising mission
-To excuse anti-Semitic laws and Abyssinia)
-1936; single textbook covering all subjects in an approved manner to encourage uniformity
-Taught of Italians creating European civilisation (eg Michelangelo/Columbus) & WW1 victory due to Italy

Question 15

Education; what did Bottai introduce in 1939 and why?

Answer 15

New school charter designed to create a new ‘fascist man’ (stopped due outbreak of WW2)

Question 16

Education; what were lessons and the curriculum like?

Answer 16

-Lessons celebrated the Duce, militarism & imperialism
-Curriculum adopted to reflect regime’s changing policies/priorities
-Religious education made compulsory in all secondary schools following Lateran Agreements (1929)
-Regular ministerial orders & instructions caused much resentment among staff in Italian schools, so official directives were often carried out w/ little enthusiasm
-University’s not harassed unless they engaged in anti-fascist political activity

Question 17

Education; what was education like in rural communities?

Answer 17

-Inadequate teaching resources were often coupled w/ absenteeism & illiteracy due to children undertaking agricultural work, particularly at harvest time = limited impact education policy
-1/5 brides in southern Italy couldn’t sign their own name

Question 18

Fascist youth; what was the ONB fascist youth movement and its aims?

Answer 18

-Helped implant fascist values
-Slogan; ‘believe, obey, fight’
-Established in 1926 by ministry of education to turn young Italians aged betw 6-18 into fascists
-Within a year had 1m+ members

Question 19

Fascist youth; what did batilla groups offer and do?

Answer 19

-Offered sport, summer camps, parades & military training (for both genders)
-Italian youths probably more attracted to facilities than propaganda but batilla boosted regime nonetheless
-Under party control in 1937, renamed GIL & made compulsory in 1939; had 7.9m members by this time

Question 20

Fascist youth; what was the GUF and what did it do?

Answer 20

-Similar to ONB but for university students
-Ran popular debating & sporting programmes
-Mostly joined for social/vocational reasons & regime tolerated a certain amount of dissent + criticism within GUF as it was created to help nurture & select next generation of fascist elite

Question 21

When were the Littoriali games and what were they?

Answer 21

-1920-37
-Moved around to different cities each year
-Sport & culture/art
-Organised by Bottai and Pavolino

Question 22

Women; how were women disadvantaged in 1919?

Answer 22

Franchise extended to all men, no women

Question 23

Women; how was it shown that Fascist + Catholics agreed on the role of sexes?

Answer 23

-Birth control/abortion unnatural
-Women should be wives & mothers
-SO contraception banned, women in work reduced, ‘Battle for Births’
-Schools emphasised traditional gender roles + discouraged females from higher education
· Women encouraged to do charity work & join committees to help disadvantaged mothers
-Believed cycling, skiing, and horse-riding caused infertility
-1935; women exchanged gold wedding rings for tin bands to help fight LoN sanctions

Question 24

Women; what was the Duce concerned with when aligning with Catholic ideas?

Answer 24

-Not w/ morals/tradition
-To raise population dramatically -> soldiers to fight + colonists for empire

Question 25

Women; what was the PNF organisation for women and how many members did it have at its peak?

Answer 25

-Fasci Femminili -700,000 members at its peak

Question 26

Women; what was the Massaie Rurali and what was its membership like?

Answer 26

Had membership of 500,000 peasant women in 1935 -> small & local scale, growing extra food for campaign for autarky, attending local meetings, or group excursions

Question 27

Women; when was the ‘Battle for births’ launched and its aims?

Answer 27

-1927 -Increase population from 40m-60m by 1950 -12 children per family = ideal

Question 28

Women; what were the series of ‘carrot and stick’ measures introduced as part of the Battle for Births?

Answer 28

-Marriage loans for married couples; reduced repayment w/ each new child -Infant welfare clinics introduced -Married man w/ 6+ children exempt from all taxation -Propaganda= duty to have child; most prolific mothers rewarded -Penalties introduced; bachelors taxed (raised 230m by 1939) -Late 1930s jobs/promotions in civil services only for married men w/ children -Women couldn’t wear heels, cosmetics, or trousers -Pressure for women to stay at home

Question 29

Women; what were the measures to pressure women to stay home?

Answer 29

-Private companies promoted married men -State railway sacked all women appointed since 1915 (except war widows) -1933; quota limited public sector to be 10% women -1938; extended to large/medium private firms -Quota not applied to low income traditional female jobs (e.g. waitressing) -All masked under Battle for Births but helped unemployment crisis -Divorce = illegal

Question 30

Women; how was it shown that the ‘Battle for Births’ failed and why?

Answer 30

-Rate of marriage= unchanged -Birth rate declined (lives births; 102:1000 (1936) BUT 147:1000 (1911) -Mussolini believed lack of Italian effort lost him 15 army divisions -1938; women= 33% workforce (drop of 3% since 1921) -> poor women needed to work, middle class enjoyed more freedom -Lack of employment led to more women at university

Question 31

What was the OND (Dopolavoro) and what did it provide?

Answer 31

-Formed 1923 -Did most to foster public identification w/ regime -National network of subsidised fascist leisure dubs for public & private sector workers -Expanded in 1927 under party control -Provided sport, music, films, dancing, organised holidays + excursions to the coast -Provided welfare for the poor families

Question 32

What did the OND (Dopolavoro) run at its height?

Answer 32

-11,000 sports clubs -771 cinemas -2066 theatre companies -2130 orchestras -6427 libraries

Question 33

How strong/influential was the Dopolavoro (OND)? (Include figures)

Answer 33

-Virtually every town/village had a Dopolavoro clubhouse -Membership not compulsory but largest adult organisation; 1926; 300,000 -> 1935; 2.4m -Represented 20% industrial workforce, 7% peasantry -Peaked in 1939 = 4 million -Coercion into membership not necessary -> working class had quick interest in subsidised sports/holidays -Manual & non-manual workers joined but tended to stick with own classes during activities -W/ its emphasis on leisure activities rather than overt indoctrination, it was genuinely popular

Question 34

Why was the Dopolavoro (OND) entirely beneficial to the fascist regime?

Answer 34

-The function & informal class segregation of OND meant it could neither instil fascism’s militaristic values nor foster a real sense of national community -Relative absence of propaganda -Theatre company Carro di Tempi (7 plays performed in Rome in 1938) but none had any relevance to fascism -Increased popularity as wasn’t blatantly fascist

Question 35

In what ways did the fascist regime try interfere in social life and was this successful?

Answer 35

-Late 1930s; introduction of initiatives to wipe out ‘Bourgeois mentality’ to take more vigorous fascist approach. Only caused loss of support -Fascist salute was compulsory replacement for handshake in 1937 -Italians told to use ‘voi’ instead of ‘lei’, as this form of address was more ‘Italian’ in derivation -Attempt to change calendar to year 1 beginning 1922 -Tried to ban women wearing makeup/trousers -All unenforceable

Question 36

Why did Mussolini work with the Catholic Church?

Answer 36

-If fascism compromised, they got support (esp. w/ church) -He never lost secular attitudes of his youth -Knew church was key in lives of millions (support of it = public support + international prestige) -His regime = opposed to anti-clerical liberals and godless communists

Question 37

Fascism + Catholic Church; what were Mussolini’s early moves in 1923

Answer 37

-Restored compulsory RE in state secondary schools -Crucifixes restored to classrooms & courtrooms -Increased gov payment for priests

Question 38

Fascism + Catholic Church; what were the Lateran Agreements of 1929 and what did they show?

Answer 38

-Treaty & concordat -Showed full evidence of Catholic support -Officially ended church state conflict that existed since 1870

Question 39

Fascism + Catholic Church; what were the terms in the Lateran Agreements 1929?

Answer 39

-Pope recognised Italian state + its possession of Rome/old Papal states -State recognised Papal control of Vatican (independent state) -Pope received 750m lira for surrendering Rome claim -Received 1m in state bonds; became largest holder -Established Catholicism as state religion: -Gov could veto papal candidates for bishops if political suspects -State paid clerical salaries -Clergy had no political affiliation -Catholic RE; compulsory in state schools -No divorce w/out religious consent -Civil ceremony no longer required for marriages; church services now had full legal standing

Question 40

Fascism + Catholic Church; what was the impact of the Lateran Agreements 1929?

Answer 40

-Showed Mussolini lost hope of removing influence from Catholic Society; but he was happy as no more clerical opposition -Common slogan “for Pope & Duce” -Co-operated in campaigns against modern dancing, short skirts & decadent films -Clergy supported Abyssinia and enforced the use of salutes

Question 41

Tensions with the Catholic Church; what were relations like with the Catholic Church and why?

Answer 41

Not smooth, worsened by more fascistisation

Question 42

Tensions with the Catholic Church; how did priests protest in 1930?

Answer 42

300 priests sent open letter of protest; “good Catholics shouldn’t accept fascism”

Question 43

Tensions with the Catholic Church; what did the government try to do in 1931 to try and suppress Catholics?

Answer 43

Attempt to supress Catholic Action (rival to ONB), had 250,000 members -> compromise; were banned from political activities

Question 44

Tensions with the Catholic Church; why did the Catholic Church start to oppose Fascism and how?

Answer 44

-Church wanted to retain control over young -> disallowed fascist interface w/ catholic schools/university + federation of Catholic university students -Church declared ONB blasphemous (1931) -Radio Vatican broadcasted alternative news/information

Question 45

Tensions with the Catholic Church; why did the Church support Abyssinia in 1935?

Answer 45

Called the War a ‘Christian Crusade’

Question 46

Tensions with the Catholic Church; what caused tensions from the Catholic Church in 1938?

Answer 46

Anti-Semitic laws

Question 47

Tensions with the Catholic Church; when was the Church/Fascism alliance over and what did the Pope state?

Answer 47

-1939 -Pope voiced regret of alliance

Question 48

The Cult of Il Duce; why was Mussolini qualified to be the centre of ‘the Cult of Il Duce’?

Answer 48

-Mussolini was a brilliant tactician & opportunist who understood better than his rivals how politics changed post WW1 -His skill at political manoeuvring was partly due to lack of firmly held ethical & ideological beliefs -He used institutions & individuals as long as they served his purpose -His short-term political shrewdness was matched by his ability to communicate effectively via public speeches & newspapers

Question 49

The Cult of Il Duce; what strategies were used to gain popular support?

Answer 49

-Mussolini shown as Italy’s saviour -Posters, films, newspapers, biographies & official statements conveyed him to be ‘super human’ -Slogan: “Mussolini is always right” -He was elevated above fascist system itself

Question 50

Control of the press; how was the press controlled and why?

Answer 50

-Journalist & editor; press control would mobilise public support -1926; all opposition newspapers shut down, others decided to follow fascist rules -Fascist gov ran its own official news agency & only gov registered journalists allowed to write -Newspapers expected to give minimal coverage to sensitive topics like crime/unemployment -Fines imposed for non compliance, but most editors censored their own publications -> all stories published Mussolini’s way -1934; tightened laws -1937; ministry of popular culture assumed control of newspapers & other media (incl. radio/cinema) in continuing drive to convert masses to fascism

Question 51

Control of the press; why was the control of the press not as significant as intended?

Answer 51

-Fascist newspapers only accounted for 10% total circulation & some local fascist publications criticised regime for lack of radicalism -Italians still had access to other forms of media, eg foreign newspapers, radio, films & tourists -Large sections of population remained illiterate

Question 52

Radio and cinema; why was radio significant for fascism?

Answer 52

-1938: 1m owned a radio, 5m had access to private stations -Continually praised Mussolini & broadcasted his speeches in full -Public listenings; schools & OND had public meetings to listen -Helped target rural areas & the illiterate

Question 53

Radio and cinema; why was cinema significant for fascism?

Answer 53

-1924; gov agency, Luce, produced documentaries & newsreels shown to audiences before films began -Imported & foreign films were censored, few Italian feature films praised fascism but cinema goers aware of blatant propaganda -1938; 75% film tickets sold were for American films

Question 54

What measure was implemented for welfare and how was this beneficial?

Answer 54

-EOA set up to run summer health camps for children, from 1931 they organised a programme of winter relief to help those who were unemployed during winter months -3m benefitted from this from 1934-5

Question 55

What was fascism and people’s acceptance to it like on local level?

Answer 55

-Fascist officials ruled through intimidation & used their position to settle both political + personal scores -Didn’t stifle protests, e.g. land occupations, food riots & strikes -Anti-fascist humour & graffiti widespread -Most Italians adopted ‘afascismo’; an attitude of passive acceptance of lukewarm conformity; as there appeared to be no viable alternative to Mussolini’s gov

Question 56

Italian anti-semitism; what was the regime’s attitudes to Jewish people pre 1938?

Answer 56

-Duce admired Nazi regime but not anti-Semitic views -Mussolini had a Jewish finance minister; Guido Jung, & a Jewish mistress, Margherita Sarfatti -1932: declared Jewish as equals in Italian state -Balbo had close ties to Italian community -Ciano (1937) wrote in his diary that the Jewish were good -Allowed 3000 Jewish refugees

Question 57

Italian anti-semitism; why did Mussolini and the fascist regime begin to be anti-semitic?

Answer 57

-Relative ease of Abyssinian invasion gave idea Italians= superior, tough, warlike, who were above the inferior -Some fascists had been anti-Semitic & Duce sometimes made anti-Semitic comments -Anti-fascist group ‘Justice and Liberty’ associated w/ the Jewish -French opposition to Italy in Spanish Civil War= PM Blum was Jewish -Mussolini became convinced Jews = enemy

Question 58

Italian anti-semitism; how influential were the Jews in fascist Italy?

Answer 58

-1938; 10,000 Jewish members of PNF -50,000 Jewish people in Italy – 0.1% of population -> no threat

Question 59

Italian anti-semitism; why were anti-Semitic laws implemented in 1938-9 and what did these consist of?

Answer 59

-1939; Manifesto of racial scientists -7000 forced out of armed services -181 teachers/academics sacked -400 Jewish state employees sacked -3600 students expelled from schools/universities -Aug 1938; foreign-born Jews banned from state schools -Sep 1938; all Jews banned from state schools (teachers & students) -> separate schools established -Oct 1938; excluded from PNF membership, banned from professional/cultural organisations, banned from owning large companies/areas of land -Nov 1938; forbidden from marrying non-Jews, excluded from army/banking posts

Question 60

Italian anti-semitism; what limited the anti-Semitic laws?

Answer 60

Implementation was inconsistent; only applied to those who hadn’t served in WW1/helped fascism (Farinacci kept his secretary & many gov officials protected their Jewish friends (eg Mussolini’s sons)

Question 61

Italian anti-semitism; why were Jewish people afraid and what did this result in?

Answer 61

-Lived in constant fear of Nazi policies coming to Italy -1942; Farinacci claimed “we will destroy the Jews” -1938-41; 6000 emigrated, 4000 converted to Christianity

Question 62

Italian anti-semitism; how were Jewish people treated in the Salo Republic?

Answer 62

7500 sent to extermination camps, only 600 returned & Italian Jews that remained forced to perform heavy manual tasks

Question 63

How far did Duce achieve his aims?; what was Mussolini’s aim and how did he try and achieve this?

Answer 63

-Aim; maintain/increase his power -Constantly portrayed as infallible genius destined to lead Italy to greatness (modern day Caesar) -But who also appreciated thoughts/needs of ordinary Italians (emphasised by the photos of him helping in Battle for Land/Grain etc.) -Initiatives claimed any success they could & failures swept away

Question 64

How far did Duce achieve his aims?; despite not being completely won by propaganda, how did people enjoy the idea of Italian greatness?

Answer 64

-1934 + 1938= world cup victories -Primo Carrera won world heavy weight boxing title (Duce claimed credit)

Question 65

How far did Duce achieve his aims?; why was there a clear failure in his ‘New Italian Society’?

Answer 65

-Race of obedient soldiers never materialised; there was outward conformity but little inner contradiction -Claimed scholastic/ONB success but large proportion left school at 11 & avoided much indoctrination -Private schools avoided curriculum & compulsory ONB membership -1931; head of fascist organisation for university students admitted truth very far from reality

Question 66

How far did Duce achieve his aims?; what did parents/older generation remain resistant to?

Answer 66

-Battle for Births -Fascist salute -New form of address -Being told what to wear -Police reports on informers suggested only Dopolavoro worked, otherwise were resistant to change

Question 67

Propaganda & the cult of personality; how was propaganda made possible?

Answer 67

-1926= opposition newspapers suppressed & journalists + editors made aware they’d be arrested if they printed anything derogatory -Mussolini’s press office published the ‘official’ versions of events -Cult of Duce; build popular support + overawe potential opponents -1926; all methods of propaganda conveying cult

Question 68

Propaganda & the cult of personality; how was Mussolini portrayed in the media?

Answer 68

-Not a politician but a saviour -> his destiny to stop socialist menaces/corrupt democratic politicians & restore Italian greatness -Modern day Caesar; a man of genius, action, culture & world statesman -Man of culture; had read all 35 volumes of Italian encyclopaedia & complete works of Shakespeare -Claimed to be accomplished musician -‘Mussolini is always right’ -Youthfulness maintained by no publication of his age/fact he needed glasses -Shown to be vigorous, athletic & model for all Italian men -Magazines printed images of him horse-riding & flying planes -‘Dedication to duty’ led to stories that he toiled for up to 20hrs a day & light was left on in his study almost all night (he was already sleeping, though)

Question 69

Propaganda & the cult of personality; how did the government stress Mussolini’s admission from world politicians?

Answer 69

Controlled newspapers, stressed his admiration from world politicians; -British foreign secretary Austin Chamberlain -Churchill’s positive opinion published 1927

Question 70

Propaganda & the cult of personality; how was it shown that Mussolini had a low opinion of the public?

Answer 70

-Thought they enjoyed being told what to do as long as they thought he was superhuman -Thought constant spectacles, parades & propaganda would maintain this belief -Many must have been sceptical but just went along with it