WW2 & The Fall Of Fascism 1940-45 Flashcards
(30 cards)
What was Italy’s international position like in 1939 and why?
-Seemed to be secure. Enhancement of prestige due to succession in fascist aggression in Libya & Abyssinia
-Invasion of Albania (April 1939) extended Italian influence across Adriatic & provided Italy w/ springboard for further expansion in Balkans at expense of Yugoslavia & Greece
-Pact of Steel meant Mussolini was closely allied w/ Germany but not yet possible to escape involvement in Hitler’s war
-Mussolini didn’t believe Germany could gain victory over GB & France, but it was almost certain to weaken them + allow him to carry through him ambitions in Mediterranean & Africa
-Italy’s international position was far weaker than it seemed
-Germany’s Anschluss w/ Austria made Germany bigger & strong -> ruined one of Mussolini’s key policies to exert influence over Albania
-Mussolini had fear of Germany, there were private discussions w/ Ciano that Hitler might soon be at war w/ Italy
-Italian military wasn’t ready for war & Mussolini told Hitler they’d only be ready in 1943, explaining non belligerent stance of September 1939
-Italy could be seen as internationally strong but militarily weak -> despite massive military spending in 1930s
Why was Mussolini embarrassed by Italy’s neutrality?
Made him look pathetic after all of his aggressive talk
How did Italy prepare for war compared to other countries?
1935-8; Italy spent 12% national income on rearmament + armed forces, compared to 7% in France & 13% in Germany but much of this money spent on purchasing inadequate armament & providing luxurious living quarters for officers
Why was Mussolini uncertain when it came to intervention?
-He had recognised the risks of intervention were too great for both his country and regime
-Winter of 1939 = unsure of what path to take
-He still favoured Germany but was jealous of its successes & even considered bringing the 2 sides to negotiate peace
What were the events of the war and how did this make people believe Germany were winning?
-May 1940 Hitler launched his Blitzkrieg against France & the low countries, catching Allied forces by surprise + throwing them into disarray
-Netherlands surrendered within 5 days, within another week German forces had reached channel
-Belgium surrendered &, by end of May, GB left continent after desperate evacuation from Dunkirk
-German forces sweeping through France, were meeting only disorganised opposition
-It appeared to Mussolini & watching world that western allies were on the brink of defeat, as France was and Britain would surely follow
Why conflict did Italy face to do with intervention?
-If remained neutral it would be faced w/ a Europe dominated by Germany, who’d be angry that Italy refused to honour treaty obligations -> Italy would gain nothing, would lack great power status & would be under physical threat from Germany
-If Italy committed itself to Axis cause, Germany would be a friend & not a potential enemy, they’d share Europe, Italy would have a stronger chance of having a free hand in Mediterranean
Why was ideology a factor in Mussolini declaring war on Britain and France in June 1940?
-Mussolini only really wanted war to glorify fascism
-W/out war he believed Italy would slide down into second division of world powers
-He believed war was essential to harden Italian people & make them into a fascistised, warrior race
-Fascist ideology of action
-Mussolini had become a prisoner of his own propaganda; he’d been pumping out the fascist ideology of war for so long that he’d built up a psychology of expectancy -> he couldn’t easily back away from war at the last moment
Why was fear a factor in Mussolini declaring war on Britain and France in June 1940?
-Mussolini feared losing popularity if he missed out on victorious war but also if he joined war & lost
-Feared Germany & its potential power if it won
-Feared not joining war soon enough but also feared if joined too early he’d expose Italy to a long war that armed forces & economy couldn’t deal w/
-Senior leaders eg Grandi, De Bono & Balbo shared Mussolini’s fears of lack of military preparedness
-Held back until Hitler’s western successes
-20th May; his military advisors were informing Mussolini that France would soon surrender, greed then came to force
Why was greed a factor in Mussolini declaring war on Britain and France in June 1940?
-Defeat of GB opened up possibilities to break free from GB Sea Power & fulfil Italian ambitions in Balkans, Mediterranean & Africa
-Defeat of France opened up opportunity to make easy territorial gains
-Mussolini held ‘shopping list’ of territorial demands he’d make the peace settlement after war -> essential to earn seat by fighting France for just long enough to pose as essential contributor to German victory
-Mussolini’s need to use German power to gain his objectives & his greed for prestige + power proved stronger than his fear of consequences
When did Italy join the war and what was the impact/results?
-He announced on May 13th 1940 that Italy would be joining the war
-He announced he wouldn’t be taking concessions from France, even if they offered him Corsica & Tunisia because he wanted to have war + prestige of glory
-June 10th declared war
-Storm of nationalist enthusiasm in press but public opinion at large wasn’t in favour -> Mussolini had hoped it would change when excitement of victory arrived
-Hitler was not in favour of Mussolini joining war either
-Winter of 1939-40; Hitler strongly urged Mussolini for military help, but received nothing
-Now it was on brink of victory in June 1940; Italian intervention was more nuisance than victory
-Hitler knew Mussolini was only involved to make gains from Germany’s victory
What occurred in early WW2?
-Hitler’s Blitzkrieg victories began w/ the rapid conquest of Poland in Sep 1939
-GB & France declared war but didn’t attack Germany
-USSR, USA, Japan not involved yet
-After the ‘phony war’ in the winter of 1939-40, Hitler launched his invasion of the West in April 1940; by end of June, Germany occupied most of Western Europe, GB fought on alone
Where and when was Mussolini’s ‘parallel war’ and how did Germany intervene?
-Oct 1940; Mussolini fought his ‘parallel war’ in Mediterranean & Africa
-1941; Germany intervened in Italy’s war & conquered Greece + Yugoslavia
How did Mussolini and Hitler begin to be defeated by the allies?
-June 1941; Hitler began his invasion of the USSR, seemed on edge of total victory by November
-Hitler’s conquests halted in December 1941
-The USSR avoided defeat & Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour brought in USA
-The parallel war in Balkans, Mediterranean & North Africa became part of this world war
-Summer 1943; war turned in favour of allies & Axis powers forced into defensive
-Allies invaded S Italy & country turned against him -> preparations made by Grandi to have Mussolini removed from power
-July 1943; Axis powers seemed to face total defeat
Why were the allies limited when winning against the Axis powers?
-Allied reclamation of land was painfully slow (incl. progress into Salo)
-War in Europe did not end until May 1945, and August in the Far East
Mussolini’s war (1940-41)
-German forces reached Paris June 14th, 3 days before Italian armies were ordered into action, 6 days before they even started to fight. June 21st: Mussolini & Hitler met in Munich
-Next day French chief of state met + signed armistice w/ Hitler. Mussolini not invited to signing, war only lasted 100hrs
-Mussolini hoped to gain Tunisia + Corsica, to occupy SW France, & seize French West. Invaded Menton, lost 630 soldiers for a very small piece of land
-Mussolini blamed Hitler for failing to seize control of the Mediterranean in summer 1940: Hitler didn’t want it & was even leading southern Italy -> no strategic value. Hitler saw Italian invasion of France as a waste, which could’ve been used on the Mediterranean. Mussolini didn’t take the opportunity to attack GB forces in Mediterranean in the summer when he may have been able to seize Egypt + Suez Canal
-Balbo died in June 1940, many say his death lost the aggressive war general Italy needed. His replacement: Graziani, had no intention of taking risks, instead of acting independently, Italy spent months waiting for battle of GB to end
-September; decided to invade Egypt. Overshadowed by Mussolini’s decision to invade Greece
-October 28th. 70,000 Italian troops invaded Greece through Albania. Hellenic Army pushed them back, by mid-December Greeks occupied nearly ¼ Albania, tying down 53,000 Italian troops
-Greece had been seemingly unimportant until now, in August had said how much more important Africa was than Balkans -> pointless invasion???
-Possible reason for invading was vengeance for Germany invading Romania 2 weeks before w/out telling Italy, invading Mussolini’s goal sphere of influence. Some say Ciano persuaded Mussolini to invade. Invasion small, generals weak
-November 11th: GB forces badly damage Italian fleet at Gulf of Taranto. Italian forces pushed out of Greece + back to Albania. Mussolini sacked Badoglio but war continued to go badly
-March 1941: GB sinks 7 Italian warships at Cape Mattapan. In north Africa GB forces outnumbered in Egypt by Graziani but had more air power
-By end of Jan 1941, 125,000 Italians were POW’s. GB counterattacks in Libya & Abyssinia. Feb 1941: Graziani resigns, small German army sent to rescue Mussolini’s forces in Libya (Afrika Corps). Quickly stabilised within Africa & went east
-April 1941: Italy lost all gains made in 1935-6 = Emperor Selassie returned from exile in GB. German’s now beginning takeover of Mussolini’s war
Germans in control 1941-43
-Hitler determined to sort out Italian issues in North Africa, so he’d be able to launch operation Barbarossa (invasion of USSR) in May
-German forces invaded Greece & Yugoslavia, who surrendered on 18th & 20th May respectively
-Balkans under German control
-Italy gained some benefits, Croatia was a semi-free puppet state & Italy controlled Croatian coastline along the Adriatic
-June 22nd; German armies stormed across borders of USSR -> Mussolini sent 62,000 men to help but more symbolical miniscule impact
-Summer 1942: 230,000 Italians at Eastern Front -> most defeated at Stalingrad (Feb 1942)
-War started to turn against Axis
-June 1942: American forces land in North Africa
-Nov 1942: Hitler occupies all of France, Mussolini saw as victory as could now could take Corsica etc.
-1942: heavy bombing raids in northern cities like Turin & Genoa
Impact of war on Italian economy
-Mussolini had boasted of 8m bayonets, but really only had 1m, as well as severe lack of tanks + artillery & only 800,000 were ready to fight
-From 1939-43: Italy’s GDP went from $151b to $92b
-Proportion of Italy’s GDP directed to war production never more than 25% (inefficient). Germany’s was 64%
-Fascist system should’ve been suited to centralisation of economy but instead PNF membership only rose due to perks & privileges, incl. no conscription
-Bureaucracy corrupt & made worse by new (1941) PNF secretary Vidussoni, inexperienced & out of his depth
-Steel production incapable of meeting demands, shortages of raw materials because flow of imports were cut off by war & autarky hadn’t worked
-Thousands of skilled workers sent to German war factories (1942-3)
-Only Italy out of all war powers failed to increase its total production (1940-1). Industrial output only 25% of capability
-Dec 1940: food shortages & coal was scarce
-1941: rationing introduced, organised badly & bread ration of only 150g per day (less than any combatant country except USSR). Jan 1943: milk crisis
-Allied bombing raids had devastating impact. Bombings cut further 20% of industrial output. Mass evacuations from cities, improvised, badly organised
-Hiding in bomb shelters all night led to inefficiency at work
-Growing resentment against war, Germany & regime itself. Propaganda had little effect
Impact of wartime propaganda
-Mussolini became cut off from ordinary people, rumours began to spread
-Failed to make personal visits + keep up morale
-Only made 4 speeches 1940-43 -> all disasters
-December 1942: put Vidussoni in charge of propaganda -> young & war hero; BAD
-He had numerous enemies, was an incompetent administrator
Mussolini resistance cause
-Years of war opened opposition against regime
-War created hardships for ordinary people -> however anti-fascists groups had always opposed regime & sensed opportunity to start organising resistance activity as public mood shifted against Mussolini
-He started to get blamed personally for everything -> all this gave an opportunity to anti-fascist opposition
Four key anti-fascist groupings
- Actionists
- Communists
- Socialists
- Catholics
Extent of resistance + examples
-By 1943 around 6m war production workers publically showed resentment for industrial crisis. They worked long shifts under tight controls, struggling w/ bomb raids, evacuations, rationing & food shortages
-Prices were rising, there was a growing black market -> pressures culminated into a massive wave of strikes in March 1943
-Strikes began in Turin, spread to northern industrial areas (incl. Milan) about 100,000 workers involved
-Workers were careful not to go too far -> strikes usually ‘sit-down’ strikes to make a point but not bring factories to a standstill/would cost workers too much in punishment/loss of wages
-Strikes = big threat to fascist system. Became politically motivated, organised by activists from PCI -> communists had to be driven underground for many years & were small in numbers but were effective in focusing people’s grievances. Out of 21,000 striking Fiat workers in Turin, only 8 communists
-Main demands of strikes were for more food, better conditions & end to war. Showed widespread hatred for war and the way it had been carried out. Resented the fact it was Hitler’s war. E.g. 200,000 Italian soldiers lost at Stalingrad
-People resented bad conditions faced by industrial workers moved to Germany. Mid July 1943: Axis forces moved out of North Africa. Allied forces arrived in Sicily, began advancing upwards
-Mussolini didn’t hesitate to blame others: Italian Generals for failing to carry out his orders. Blamed Hitler for wasting his men & resources in Stalingrad when Mussolini thought he should’ve concentrated all available forces into defeating W Europe
-Most preferred to blame Mussolini: he’d completely dominated politics, so put them into the position to have entered Hitler’s war
-Many people saw desertion of Germain alliance as the way to gain best possible relations w/ the allies. Clear Mussolini was the problem
Fascist Grand Council
-Existed to rubber stamp Mussolini’s decisions (his hand picked members)
-He hadn’t bothered to call a meeting since before war
-July 24th meeting called due to his belief that he could reinforce his authority by bullying fascist leaders into declaring their support (talked into holding meeting by Farinacci & De Bono) -> however these meetings placed a constitutional weapon in the hands of his opponents
-Dino Grandi was ready to use this weapon, alongside discounted fascist Bottai & Mussolini’s son in law Ciano. They worked on undecided members of the council to gain acceptance of a vote of no confidence
-When the council met on the set date, many rebels were afraid of what Mussolini might do so several members bought pistols, one even took a hand grenade
-Even though rumours had circulated, Mussolini was taken by surprise & had not made any extra precautions. Grandi’s resolution passed 17-9 (Ciano voted against Mussolini
-Mussolini was quick to assume it was just hot air & normality would promptly be resumed
Mussolini’s visit to the King
-Sunday 25th July; Mussolini went to visit king but believed be had no reason to be worried
-Mussolini gave a long report of military situation as if he was still in control of affairs
-The king interrupted to tell Mussolini the war effort was over & he was being replaced as PM by Badoglio. He was promptly arrested
Italy with Mussolini and the continuation of war
-Sep 8; Italy surrendered
-The king/Badoglio didn’t act quickly/decisively enough to end war, so Germany was able to take over much of north
-Grandi advised they should immediately change sides, support allies but Badoglio was terrified of potential German response. He hoped Italy could become neutral; w/ both sides pulling out -> unrealistic
-Badoglio didn’t act quick enough, sent mixed messages to both allies & Italians, whilst Hitler rushed extra troops into Italy & stationed units alongside Italian forces to ensure Italy didn’t try and make separate peace
-The announcement on September 8th very vague in order to keep peace on both sides. Italian armies were based all over (France, Croatia, Greece) -> w/out clear orders they didn’t know what to do & German soldiers did all they could to prevent Italian forces from surrendering/changing sides= TENSION
-9 September: king & staff evacuated Rome, leaving it to Germans. Within 2 days was under German control
-Sep 12th: Mussolini escaped from captivity -> moved to safe lodge in mountains just NE of Rome
-Germans gave hero’s welcome to Mussolini; a propaganda coup for Germans, showed Mussolini’s gratitude + dependence on Hitler
-Mussolini was to become Germany’s propaganda puppet; ‘saving’ Italy & restoring fascism. Mussolini was to have no control/independence here
-Civil war: Kingdom of South vs. Salo Republic
