Figures throughout history (EXAM) Flashcards
(52 cards)
1
Q
Alexander the Great (context)
A
- Born in 356 BCE in Macedonia, the son of King Philip II.
- Tutored by Aristotle, giving him a deep grounding in Greek culture, philosophy, and science.
- Became king at age 20 after Philip’s assassination in 336 BCE.
Inherited a strong, disciplined army and a desire to expand Greek influence.
2
Q
Alexander the Great (significance)
A
- Military Genius: Conquered the Persian Empire, Egypt, and extended his empire to India — creating one of the largest empires in history by the age of 32.
- Cultural Impact (Hellenism): Spread Greek culture, language, art, and ideas across three continents — blending them with local traditions (Hellenistic civilization).
- His empire fragmented after his death in 323 BCE, but the Hellenistic kingdoms that followed carried forward his influence.
Founding of Cities: Founded over 20 cities (most famously Alexandria in Egypt), many of which became major centers of learning and culture.
3
Q
Zeno of Citium (context)
A
- Originally a merchant, Zeno was shipwrecked in Athens and began studying philosophy.
- He studied under Crates the Cynic, as well as other schools, before founding his own.
Around 300 BCE, he began teaching at the Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch) in Athens, which gave his philosophy its name: Stoicism.
4
Q
Zeno of Citium (significance)
A
- Founder of Stoicism: Developed a philosophical system emphasizing virtue, reason, and living in harmony with nature as the path to a good life.
- Influence on Roman Thought: Stoicism deeply influenced later thinkers such as Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius — shaping Roman ethics and leadership.
- Cultural Contribution: Helped move philosophy away from abstract theory toward practical ethics and everyday wisdom for personal and civic life.
5
Q
Athanasius (context)
A
- Lived during a critical time in early Christianity when the Church was defining core doctrines, particularly around the nature of Jesus Christ.
- Served as Bishop of Alexandria in Egypt, a key center of early Christian thought.
The Church was battling the rise of Arianism, a theological view that denied the full divinity of Jesus Christ.
6
Q
Athanasius (significance)
A
- Athanasius was the chief defender of Nicene orthodoxy, which affirmed that Jesus is fully God
- His opposition to Arianism earned him exile five times by emperors sympathetic to Arian views.
- Authored “On the Incarnation”, a foundational Christian text explaining why God had to become man in Christ.
- Helped shape the Nicene Creed, a cornerstone of Christian belief.
Advocated for the canon of Scripture; his Easter letter in 367 AD is the earliest known list matching the modern 27-book New Testament.
7
Q
Basil of Caesarea (context)
A
- Lived during the later stages of the Arian controversy in the 4th century.
- Part of the Cappadocian Fathers, along with his brother Gregory of Nyssa and friend Gregory of Nazianzus, who were key in developing Trinitarian theology.
Operated in a Roman Empire that was increasingly Christian but still politically and theologically divided.
8
Q
Basil of Caesarea (significance)
A
- One of the most influential early Church Fathers in Eastern Christianity.
- Strongly defended the divinity of the Holy Spirit, helping to clarify the doctrine of the Trinity — that God is one essence in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
- Founded one of the earliest Christian monastic communities, emphasizing prayer, communal life, and service — a model that influenced Eastern Orthodox monasticism for centuries.
- Advocated for social justice, establishing hospitals, hospices, and charitable institutions to care for the poor and sick — a precursor to Christian social work.
His theological writings and sermons helped solidify Nicene orthodoxy and combat semi-Arian views.
9
Q
Augustine of Hippo (context)
A
- Born in Roman North Africa (modern-day Algeria), he was raised by a Christian mother (Monica) and a pagan father.
- Converted to Christianity after a period of skepticism
Lived during the decline of the Western Roman Empire.
10
Q
Augustine of Hippo (significance)
A
- Wrote Confessions, a spiritual autobiography exploring his conversion, and The City of God, a foundational Christian philosophy of history and society.
- Developed key doctrines such as original sin, divine grace, and predestination, deeply shaping Western Christianity, especially Catholic and Protestant traditions.
- Defended orthodoxy against heresies like Pelagianism (which denied original sin) and Donatism (which insisted on the moral purity of clergy).
His fusion of Christian doctrine with Greco-Roman thought created a framework that influenced Western theology, ethics, and politics for centuries.
11
Q
Nestorius (context)
A
- Nestorius was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to 431 AD during a time of significant theological debate about the nature of Christ.
- He was active in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and became a central figure in one of the most important Christological controversies in the early Church.
His teachings sparked a major theological conflict that led to the Council of Ephesus (431 AD).
12
Q
Nestorius (significance)
A
- Nestorius is best known for rejecting the use of the term Theotokos (“God-bearer”) for the Virgin Mary, arguing that she should be called Christotokos (“Christ-bearer”) instead. He believed this better preserved the distinction between Christ’s divine and human natures.
- His views were seen by many, especially Cyril of Alexandria, as dividing Christ into two separate persons—one divine and one human—rather than affirming the unity of Christ’s person.
- As a result, the Council of Ephesus (431) condemned Nestorius’ teachings as heretical, and he was removed from his position as Patriarch.
The controversy led to the Nestorian Schism, with many of his followers forming what became known as the Church of the East, which spread across Persia and Asia.
13
Q
Pope Gregory (context)
A
- Strengthened the power and independence of the Papacy.
- Reorganized Church liturgy and administration; credited (traditionally) with initiating Gregorian Chant.
- Sent missionaries, including Augustine of Canterbury, to evangelize pagan Europe (especially Anglo-Saxon England).
Used Church resources to feed and care for the poor during times of crisis.
14
Q
Pope Gregory (significance)
A
- Helped define the medieval Papacy and its spiritual and political roles.
- Set the tone for Christian leadership in the early Middle Ages.
Venerated as a saint in both the Western and Eastern Church; declared a Doctor of the Church
15
Q
Clovis (context)
A
- first king to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler and the founder of the Merovingian dynasty.
reigned during a time of great instability in Europe, following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Germanic tribes were vying for power, and Christianity was divided between Arianism (adopted by many Germanic tribes) and Nicene orthodoxy
16
Q
Clovis (significance)
A
- Clovis’s conversion to Nicene Christianity around 496 CE was a turning point in European religious history.
- Unlike many other Germanic rulers who embraced Arian Christianity, Clovis aligned himself with the Roman Catholic Church. This decision not only helped consolidate his power among the Gallo-Roman population but also established a strong relationship between the Frankish monarchy and the Church.
His reign marked the beginning of a Christian Frankish kingdom
17
Q
Patrick (context)
A
- Captured by Irish raiders as a teenager and enslaved in Ireland.
- Escaped after six years, returned to his family, and later felt called to return to Ireland as a Christian missionary.
Became a bishop and is credited with bringing Christianity to large parts of Ireland.
18
Q
Patrick (significance)
A
- Played a crucial role in converting the Irish people from paganism to Christianity.
- Helped establish churches, monasteries, and a native Irish clergy.
- Venerated as the patron saint of Ireland.
- His missionary efforts helped lay the groundwork for the later “Celtic Church.”
St. Patrick’s Day is celebrated worldwide as a cultural and religious holiday
19
Q
John Wycliffe (context)
A
- A scholastic philosopher, theologian, and professor at Oxford University.
Lived during a time of rising discontent with the corruption and wealth of the medieval Church, especially during the Avignon Papacy and the Great Schism
20
Q
John Wycliffe (significance)
A
- Advocated for the Bible to be translated into the vernacular (common English), believing that all Christians should have direct access to Scripture.
- Oversaw the first complete translation of the Bible into Middle English (known as the Wycliffe Bible).
- Criticized the wealth and political power of the Church.
- Rejected transubstantiation and questioned papal authority, laying early groundwork for later reformers.
- His followers were called lollards
- Known as the Morning Star of the Reformation
Declared a heretic after death; his remains were exhumed and burned by order of the Council of Constance in 1415.
21
Q
Hudson Taylor (context)
A
- A British Protestant Christian missionary
- Founded the China Inland Mission (CIM) in 1865, during a time when most missionaries remained near China’s coastal treaty ports.
Deeply influenced by the Evangelical Revival and passionate about unreached people groups.
22
Q
Hudson Taylor (significance)
A
- Hudson Taylor was revolutionary in adopting Chinese dress, language, and customs, breaking from typical Western missionary practices.
- Believed that missionaries should not impose Western culture but rather live like the locals to share the gospel effectively.
- CIM prioritized sending missionaries to interior regions of China, rather than remaining in safe coastal areas.
- Emphasized faith-based support (no direct fundraising) and interdenominational cooperation.
- By his death, the CIM had over 800 missionaries, 125 schools, and had led 18,000 people to Christ in China.
Pioneered a new model of missions
23
Q
Samuel Mardson (context)
A
- Born in England and ordained in the Church of England.
- Sent as a chaplain to New South Wales in 1793.
- Became influential both as a religious leader and a magistrate.
- Played a foundational role in the early Christian mission to New Zealand.
24
Q
Samuel Mardson (significance)
A
First Preacher of the Gospel in Aotearoa (1814):
- Preached the first recorded Christian sermon in New Zealand on Christmas Day, 1814, in the Bay of Islands.
- The sermon marked the beginning of missionary activity in Aotearoa, in cooperation with Māori chiefs, especially Ruatara.
Supporter of Māori Engagement:
- Maintained a complex but genuine interest in Māori culture and welfare.
- His collaboration with Māori leaders opened pathways for more missionaries and educational work.
Agricultural and Practical Aid:
- Introduced European farming tools and animals to Māori communities to aid sustainability
Controversial Legacy:
Known as the “flogging parson” due to his severe punishments as a magistrate in Australia
25
John Calvin (context)
* Time period: 1509–1564
* Region: France → Switzerland
* Background:
- Born in Noyon, France; trained in law and theology.
- Deeply influenced by the Reformation started by Martin Luther.
- Fled Catholic France due to his Protestant beliefs and settled in Geneva.
26
John Calvin (significance)
* Systematised Reformed Theology:
○ Authored Institutes of the Christian Religion—one of the most important theological works of the Reformation.
○ Emphasised the sovereignty of God, predestination, and salvation by grace alone.
* Shaped Protestant Church Structure:
○ Developed a model of church governance based on elders and pastors (Presbyterian polity).
○ Influenced church discipline, worship, and leadership practices across Europe and later, North America.
* Geneva as a Model City:
○ Turned Geneva into a centre of Reformed Christianity—a “Protestant Rome.”
○ Trained many pastors and missionaries who spread Calvinism across Europe.
* Legacy:
○ Gave rise to Calvinism, which would influence major branches of Protestantism (Presbyterianism, Reformed Churches, Puritanism, etc.).
○ Left a deep mark on Christian theology, Western political thought (ideas of liberty under law), and cultural development.
27
William Carey (context)
* Time period: 1761–1834
* Region: England → India
* Background:
- Born in rural Northamptonshire, England.
- Trained as a shoemaker but developed a passion for languages, theology, and geography.
- Became a Baptist minister and was deeply moved by the spiritual needs of non-Christian nations.
- Authored An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens (1792), challenging Christians to take missions seriously.
28
William Carey (significance)
* "Father of Modern Missions" 🌍
* Helped found the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792.
* Sailed to India in 1793 and spent the rest of his life there.
* Missionary Work in India:
* Helped translate the Bible into over 40 languages and dialects.
* Advocated for social reform, including the abolition of sati (widow burning) and infanticide.
* Promoted education for all, especially girls and the marginalized.
* Established Serampore College to train Indian ministers and promote higher learning.
* Inspiration to Others:
- Inspired a wave of 19th-century missionary movements (e.g., Hudson Taylor, Adoniram Judson).
29
Ignatius (context)
* Time period: c. 35–107 AD
* Region: Antioch
* Background:
- Early bishop of Antioch, one of the most important Christian centres in the ancient world.
- Likely a disciple of the Apostle John.
- Arrested under Roman persecution and transported to Rome for execution.
Wrote seven letters to various Christian communities while en route to martyrdom, which became key theological documents.
30
Ignatius (significance)
* Early Christian Martyr
○ Eagerly embraced martyrdom
○ His death in the Colosseum around 107 AD deeply impacted the early Church.
* Defender of Church Unity & Authority
○ Emphasized the role of bishops in maintaining orthodoxy and unity.
○ Advocated for obedience to Church leaders, seeing them as essential in resisting heresies.
* Christology & Sacraments
○ Strong affirmations of Jesus’ divinity and humanity—countering early heresies like Docetism (Jesus' experiences were merely an illusion).
Spoke powerfully of the Eucharist as the flesh of Christ, making his letters a key witness to early sacramental theology.
31
Tertullian (Context)
* Time period: c. 155 – c. 240 AD
* Region: Carthage
* Background:
- A well-educated Roman citizen, trained in law and rhetoric.
- Converted to Christianity as an adult and became a prolific Christian writer.
- Known as the "Father of Latin Christianity" and the first major Christian theologian to write in Latin.
Later in life, joined the Montanist movement, a sect emphasising prophecy and strict morality.
32
Tertullian (significance)
* Pioneer of Latin Theology
* Coined foundational theological terms like “Trinity” (Trinitas) and helped formulate the language used in later creeds.
* His writings laid a crucial foundation for Western Christian thought.
* Apologist and Defender of the Faith
* Wrote Apologeticus, a bold, fiery, and sarcastic defense of Christians against Roman accusations.
* Challenged the logic of paganism and criticized unjust persecution of Christians.
* Moral Rigorist
* Emphasized strict Christian ethics, such as modesty, fidelity, and separation from pagan culture.
* Opposed participation in public spectacles like the theater or gladiatorial games.
* Controversial Figure
- His later embrace of Montanism led to tension with the broader Church.
Though not considered a saint, many of his earlier works were highly influential on orthodox Christianity.
33
Arius (context)
* Time period: c. 256 – 336 AD
* Region: Alexandria, Egypt
* Background:
- Arius was a Christian presbyter (elder) in Alexandria.
- He became famous for his theological teachings about the nature of Christ.
His views led to the first ecumenical council.
34
Arius (significance)
* Founder of Arianism
* Taught that Jesus Christ is not co-eternal with God the Father.
* Claimed that the Son was created by the Father and therefore had a beginning:
* Sparked the Arian Controversy
* His teachings caused a major theological crisis in the early Church.
* Opposed by Athanasius of Alexandria, who defended the full divinity of Christ.
* Council of Nicaea (325 AD)
* Emperor Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea to settle the dispute.
* The council condemned Arius’ views as heresy and produced the Nicene Creed
* Arius was exiled
* Enduring Impact
- Arianism didn’t die out quickly—it persisted for centuries, especially among Germanic tribes.
Forced the Church to articulate key doctrines about the Trinity and Christ's divinity.
35
Cyril (context)
* Time period: c. 376 – 444 AD
* Region: Alexandria, Egypt
* Background:
- Cyril was the Patriarch of Alexandria from 412 until his death in 444.
- He played a central role in early Christological debates, especially against Nestorius.
Known as a brilliant theologian and a powerful Church leader, but also a figure of some controversy for his political conflicts with Novatians, Jews, and Pagans. He was involved in disputes that led to violence and upheaval in Alexandria.
36
Cyril (significance)
* Champion of Orthodox Christology
* Defended the doctrine of the hypostatic union: that Christ is one person with two natures—divine and human—united without confusion or separation.
* Opposed Nestorius, who argued that Mary should not be called Theotokos ("God-bearer"). Cyril insisted this title was essential to affirm Christ’s divinity.
* Council of Ephesus (431 AD)
* Played a leading role at the Council of Ephesus, which condemned Nestorianism as heresy.
* The council affirmed that Jesus is one person and that Mary can rightly be called Mother of God (Theotokos).
* Cyril’s theological writings deeply shaped orthodox Christology.
* Theological Legacy
- Revered as a Doctor of the Church and a Saint in both Eastern and Western Christianity.
His writings, especially on the nature of Christ and the Incarnation, became foundational texts for later doctrinal formulations.
37
Charlemagne (context)
* Time Period: 742–814 AD
* Region: Western Europe
* Background:
- King of the Franks (from 768), King of the Lombards (from 774), and Emperor of the Carolingian Empire (from 800)
- Grandson of Charles Martel, he inherited and expanded the Frankish kingdom into much of Western and Central Europe
Crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800, reviving the idea of a Western Roman Empire
38
Charlemagne (significance)
* Revival of the Roman Empire
* Charlemagne’s coronation marked the birth of the Holy Roman Empire, laying the foundations for medieval Christendom
* He presented himself as the protector of the Church and sought to unite all Christian lands under one rule
* Supporter of Christianity and the Church
* Deeply involved in Church reform, including improving clerical education and promoting correct doctrine
* Mandated Christianity across his empire, often by force (e.g. Saxon Wars)
* Fostered the Carolingian Renaissance: a revival in art, culture, and theology underpinned by monastic scholarship
* Legal and Educational Reforms
* Standardized laws throughout his empire
* Encouraged the creation of monastic schools, which preserved much classical and Christian knowledge
* Promoted the use of Latin as a unifying scholarly and ecclesiastical language
* Cultural and Political Legacy
- Seen as the “Father of Europe”, bringing lasting unity to the continent after the fall of Rome
His legacy shaped the idea of a Christian emperor—a ruler who governed not just politically, but spiritually
39
Brothers Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius (context)
* Time Period: 9th century (Cyril: c. 827–869, Methodius: c. 815–885)
* Region: Byzantine Empire then to the Great Moravia and Slavic regions
* Background:
- Greek brothers from Thessalonica
- Originally named Constantine (later took the monastic name Cyril) and Methodius
- Sent by the Byzantine Emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople as missionaries to the Slavs
Their mission began in 863 AD when Prince Rastislav of Great Moravia requested teachers who could preach in the Slavic language
40
Brothers Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius (significance)
* Pioneers of Slavic Christianity
○ Preached in the vernacular, not Latin or Greek, making Christianity accessible to the Slavic people
○ Helped integrate Slavic culture into the Christian faith, rather than imposing Greek or Roman forms
* Creators of the Glagolitic Alphabet
○ Invented the Glagolitic alphabet (precursor to the Cyrillic alphabet) to translate the Bible and liturgy into Old Church Slavonic
○ Laid the foundation for literacy, education, and national identity in many Slavic nations
* Tensions with Latin Church
○ Faced opposition from German Latin-speaking clergy, who insisted that only Hebrew, Greek, and Latin were acceptable sacred languages
○ Ultimately defended their work in Rome, where the Pope approved their use of the Slavic language in worship
* Legacy of Christian Unity and Diversity
- Recognized as co-patrons of Europe by Pope John Paul II
Their legacy lives on in both Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, particularly among Slavic peoples
41
Cyprian (context)
* Time Period: c. 200–258 AD
* Region: Carthage - North Africa
* Background:
- Born into a wealthy pagan family, Cyprian converted to Christianity around 246 AD
- Became bishop of Carthage just two years later
- Lived during a period of intense persecution of Christians under Emperor Decius and later Valerian
- Known for his writings and leadership during doctrinal and pastoral crises, especially involving those who renounced their faith under persecution
42
Cyprian (significance)
* Key Theologian of Church Unity
* Emphasized under the bishop
* Supported the idea that the Church is one universal body — a major influence on Catholic ecclesiology
* The Novatian Controversy
* Took a moderate stance toward Christians who had lapsed under persecution
* Opposed the rigorist Novatianists, who believed fallen Christians could never be restored
* Advocated for penance and restoration, balancing discipline with mercy
* Martyrdom and Legacy
* Martyred in 258 AD during Emperor Valerian’s persecution — one of the most prominent African Christian martyrs
* Remembered as both a pastor and theologian, combining strong leadership with doctrinal clarity
* Influence on Later Theology
- Writings heavily cited by Augustine, especially during the Donatist controversy
Precursor to debates about Church authority, penance, and grace
43
Gregory the illuminator (context)
* Time Period: c. 239–330 AD
* Region: Armenia
* Background:
- Gregory was born into an aristocratic Parthian family, but spent time in Cappadocia after his father was involved in political violence.
- Raised as a Christian, he returned to Armenia as an adult during a time of pagan dominance under King Tiridates III.
Armenia had a long history of Zoroastrian and pagan worship, especially influenced by Persian traditions.
44
Gregory the illuminator (significance)
* Apostle to Armenia
* Converted King Tiridates III to Christianity after healing him from madness — a pivotal moment in Christian history.
* Following the king’s conversion, Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as the state religion around 301 AD.
* Known as the "Illuminator" because he brought the light of Christ to an entire nation.
* Founder of the Armenian Church
* Established the Armenian Apostolic Church, which remains one of the oldest Christian traditions still active today.
* Became the first Catholicos (patriarch) of Armenia.
* Encouraged the construction of churches and formal organization of Christian communities throughout Armenia.
* Legacy of National Christian Identity
Gregory’s mission forged a deep link between Armenian identity and Christianity, which would remain resilient through centuries of hardship.
45
Thomas Aquinas (context)
* Time Period: c. 1225–1274 AD
* Region: Italy
* Background:
- Born into a noble family, Aquinas was expected to become a powerful churchman.
- Joined the Dominican Order, despite strong family resistance — they even imprisoned him to prevent it!
- Studied in Paris and under Albert the Great in Cologne, becoming one of the most influential medieval theologians and philosophers.
His work was deeply influenced by the rediscovery of Aristotle in the West during the 13th century.
46
Thomas Aquinas (significance)
* Theologian and Philosopher
* Aquinas fused Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy, creating a powerful framework for understanding God, the world, and human purpose.
* His most famous work, the Summa Theologica, is a massive theological compendium that addresses nearly every area of Christian belief and practice.
* Defender of Faith and Reason
* Championed the belief that faith and reason are not opposed, but complementary.
* He argued that human reason can grasp truths about God (e.g., God's existence) but that divine revelation is needed for salvation and deeper truths (like the Trinity).
* Doctor of the Church
* Given the title "Doctor Angelicus" (Angelic Doctor) for his intellectual purity and clarity.
* Canonized as a saint in 1323, and later named a Doctor of the Church — a title reserved for those with exceptional doctrinal insight.
* Impact on Catholic Doctrine
- Aquinas’s work became foundational to Roman Catholic theology
- His “Five Ways” to prove the existence of God are among the most famous arguments in natural theology.
Influenced the development of natural law ethics, which later shaped Western moral and legal thought.
47
Pope Boniface VIII (context)
* Time Period: Reigned as pope from 1294–1303 AD
* Region: Rome, Italy
* Background:
- Rose to power during a time of intense political and ecclesiastical tension.
- Succeeded the hermit pope Celestine V, whom he controversially pressured to resign — a rare and suspicious papal transition.
His papacy was marked by escalating conflict between Church authority and emerging national monarchies, especially King Philip IV of France.
48
Pope Boniface VIII (significance)
* Asserted Papal Supremacy
* Issued the Unam Sanctam bull in 1302, one of the most extreme declarations of papal authority, stating:
"It is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff."
* This was a direct challenge to the growing power of secular kings and became a symbol of papal absolutism.
* Conflict with France
* Opposed Philip IV’s taxation of clergy without papal consent.
* In retaliation, Philip accused Boniface of heresy, corruption, and immorality.
* In 1303, Boniface was violently seized in Anagni by forces loyal to Philip — a shocking act known as the "Outrage of Anagni". Though released, Boniface died shortly after, humiliated and weakened.
* Jubilee of 1300
- Declared the first Christian Jubilee Year, encouraging mass pilgrimages to Rome.
This move boosted the papacy's spiritual and economic influence, drawing thousands of pilgrims and promoting the idea of indulgences.
49
Dietrich Bonhoeffer (context)
* Time Period: 1906–1945
* Region: Germany, during the rise and reign of Nazi Germany
* Background:
- A Lutheran pastor, theologian, and anti-Nazi dude.
- Studied theology in Berlin and later spent time in the United States (Union Theological Seminary in NYC).
- Became known for his intellectual brilliance and deep commitment to a Christ-centered, ethical faith.
Lived during a time when many German churches aligned themselves with Hitler's regime under the "German Christian" movement.
50
Dietrich Bonhoeffer (significance)
* Confessing Church Leader
* Co-founded the Confessing Church, a movement that resisted Nazi interference in Church matters.
* Stood firmly against the Nazification of Christianity, insisting that loyalty to Christ must come before loyalty to the state.
* Famously declared:
“Silence in the face of evil is itself evil.”
* Wrote The Cost of Discipleship
* In this powerful book, Bonhoeffer warned against "cheap grace" — grace without repentance, discipleship, or the cross.
* Emphasized costly grace as the true call of the Christian life: obedience to Christ, even unto death.
* The book continues to inspire Christians globally toward authentic, sacrificial discipleship.
* Resistance and Martyrdom
- Joined the Abwehr, a German military intelligence office where some officers plotted to overthrow Hitler.
- Involved in the July 20 Plot to assassinate Hitler — not directly in the bomb plot, but part of the broader resistance.
Arrested in 1943 and executed by hanging in April 1945 at Flossenbürg concentration camp, just weeks before WWII ended.
51
Vladimir Lenin (context)
* Time Period: 1870–1924
* Region: Russia, during the collapse of the Russian Empire and rise of the Soviet Union
* Background:
- Born as Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, later took the name Lenin.
- Influenced heavily by Marxist theory after the execution of his brother for plotting against the Tsar.
- Became a professional revolutionary, spending years in exile in Switzerland and other parts of Europe.
Returned to Russia in 1917 during the chaos of World War I and the February Revolution.
52
Vladimir Lenin (significance)
* Leader of the Bolshevik Revolution
* Head of the Bolshevik Party, a radical Marxist faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.
* Led the October Revolution (1917), overthrowing the Provisional Government and establishing Bolshevik control.
* His leadership marked the end of the Russian monarchy and the birth of the world’s first communist state.
* Founder of the Soviet Union
* Created the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which later became the USSR in 1922.
* Introduced War Communism during the Civil War, followed by the New Economic Policy (NEP) to revive the economy.
* Built a single-party state, suppressing opposition through the Cheka (secret police) and censorship.
* Leninist Ideology
- Adapted Marxism into Leninism, emphasizing the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat.
- Promoted international revolution, inspiring communist movements worldwide.
His theories and methods profoundly influenced 20th-century communist regimes, especially under Stalin, Mao, and others.
