Final Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
Step 1: P gen
A
Produced a “true breeding” population called the P generation by self-pollinating plants with the desired trait. R: PP and pp
2
Q
Step 2: F1 gen
A
Produced a F1 generation by cross-pollinating the p generation. T: PP X pp / R: Pp
3
Q
Step 3: F2 gen
A
Produced a F2 generation by self-pollinating the F1 generation.
T: Pp x Pp / R: PP, pp, Pp, Pp
4
Q
P gen= Phenotypes + Phenotypic ratio
A
P: White, Purple
PR: 1:1
5
Q
F1 gen= Phenotype + Phenotypic ratio.
A
P: 100% purple
PR: 1:0?
6
Q
F2 gen= Phenotype + Phenotypic ratio
A
P: White, Purple
PR: 3:1
7
Q
Allele
A
One of two (or more) forms of a gene.
-Each individual has two or more alleles per trait.
-Each parent will pass an allele to an offspring.
-The F2 genwration will produce a ratio of 3:1.
8
Q
Phenotype
A
-The physical apperance of an organism
-Word descriptions (blue eyes and black hair)
9
Q
Genotype
A
-The genetic makeup of an organism.
-Letters (BB, Bb, bb)
10
Q
Monohybrid Cross
A
-Mono means one
-A monohybrid cross is a cross between individuals reguarding only one trait.
11
Q
Phenotypic ratio
A
The ratio of phenotypes that appear in the offspring.
(Dominant) : (Recessive)
12
Q
Genotypic ratio
A
The ratio of genotypes that appear in the offspring.
(AA) : (Aa) : (aa)
13
Q
Test cross
A
Process used to determine the genotype of an unknown genotype of an organism.
14
Q
To perform a cross test
A
To perform: Cross the individual with unkown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual. Analyze the phenotype ratios of the offspring.
15
Q
Results of the test cross
A
If the offspring is 100% dominant, then the unknown is probably homozygous dominant.
If any of the offspring is recessive, then the unknown is heterozygous.
16
Q
Complete Dominance
A
One allele is completely dominant.
Ex. Aa (A dominates a)
17
Q
Incomplete Dominance
A
Two or more alleles influence the phenotype. Often the phenotype is a blending or mixing of the other phenotypes. Only heterozygous is affected.
18
Q
Codominance
A
Both alleles for a gene are expressed in the heterozygous individual. Neither allele is dominant ir recessive. Nor do the alleles blend in the phenotype. Only the heterozygous if affected.
19
Q
Incomplete Dominance example
A
Ex. When you cross a red flower and a white flower, you get a pink flower.
20
Q
Codominance example
A
Ex. When you cross a red horse with a white horse you get a ROAN horse.
21
Q
- 3 Phenotypes
- Heterozygote mix
- Expresses both alleles
A
- Incomplete or Codominance
- Incomplete dominance
- Codominance
22
Q
Multiple Alleles (Blood Types)
A
More than two types of alleles (not just B or b) but each person only gets two alleles that are equally dominant and recessive third allele
Ex. Human bloodtype
23
Q
Human Bloodtype Geneotype
A
Antigens (protein) [A-antigens, B-antigens, O-no antigens]
I is equally dominant to other I.
Type A: I^A I^A or I^A i
Type B: I^B I^B or I^B i
Type AB: I^A I^B
Type O: ii
24
Q
Dihybrid
A
Crossing two traits simultaneously.
25
Solving Dihybrid Crosses: Step 1
Step 1: Determine the genotypes of the parents.
a. Two traits involved
b. What is the dominant and rexessive phenotype.
c. What letters will you use.
26
Solving Dihybrid Crosses: Step 2
Step 2: Determine the gametes each parent could give by using FOIL. AaBb
F: First set - Aa
O: Outerset - Ab. (4 possible combos)
I: Inner set - aB
L: Last set - ab
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Solving Dihybrid Crosses: Step 3
Line up the possible gametes on a 4x4 punnett square. (Must account for every unique geneotype)
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Short cut for dihybrid crosses.
If 2 of the 4 gametes (combos) are repeated you don't have to do both.
29
In the early 1900's, a researcher named Thomas Morgan discovered.
Sex chromosomes are either X or Y
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For the 23rd pair of chromosomes, females have _ _ and males have _ _.
Female: XX
Male: XY
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During 1._____, females will only produce 2.________...
1. Oogenesis 2. Eggs with an x chromosome
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During _______, males produce _______...
1. Spermatogenesis 2. Sperm with either an X or Y chromosome.
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The fathers sperm.... of the baby
Determines the gender.
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Comparing X and Y chromisomes
The Y chromosome is 1/3 the size of the X chromosome. Therefore the X chromosomes can carry more genes than the Y chromosomes.
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The presence of a gene on a sex chromosome (X or Y)
Sex linkage- sex linked traits are [physical traits] that whose genes are on the X and Y chromosome.
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Examples of sex linked traits
Colorblindness, Hemophilia, Muscular dystrophy.
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SLT: Female
A feamale has two X chromossomes can AA, Aa, aa.
Geneotype: X^A X^A, X^a X^a, X^A X^a
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SLT: Male
Only one X chromosome. So whichever gene he gets (dominant or recessive) will determine his phenotype.
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Chromosome Y
Males cannot be carriers because Y can't carry any genes.
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Pedigree
A genetic representation of a family tree that diagrams the inheritance of a trait or disease through several generations.
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Dot in circle
Carrier female for sex linked traits.
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Dimond
Offspring of unknown sex
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Crossed
Dead offspring
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Half shedded in
Heterozygous
45
How to lable a pedigree
- Add roman numerals on the left for generations.
- Birth order is bottom left to right.
46
Fully shaded in
- We are tracking one trait in a family
- We need to determine the shape "shaded in" or afflicted.
46
RFLP / SHORT
PCR
Sanger
Genetic engineering
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Steps for interpreting pedigrees
1. Sex linked or autosomal #A MandF
- sl: 2 or more diff A: 2 or less diff
2. Dominant or recessive trait
- D: all child has DP R: A off no AP
3. Individual Geneotypes
- sl: X or Y A: use any letter
48
1. Identical twins
2. Fraternal twins
1. Branch like upsidedown Y from line and same gender.
2. Branch like an upsidedown v from line and different gender.
49
Genetic engineering can be used (general application)
Using central dogma genetic engineering can be used to produce a desired protein rapidly.
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GE: 1
1. Cutting DNA strands with restriction enzymes.
- They cut each strand if DNA one from left to right and another from right to left.
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GE: 2
2. The plasmid is cut with the same restriction enzymes as the donor organism, leaving the SAME sticky ends.
- Most common cloning vector is a plasmid.
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GE: 3
3. The dinir gene is inserted into the plasmid, DNA ligase "glues" the sticky ends.
- It is now recombinant DNA then it is transfered into the bacterium and is called a transgenic organism.
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DNA fingerprint is
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Uses for DNA profiling
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The method for preparing a DNA fingerprint is called
RFLP
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RFLP Steps: 1. And 2.
1. The DNA sample is first cut into many fragments by restriction enzymes.
2. The DNA fragments are then separated according to their size by gel
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RFLP: 3. 4.
3. Radioactive probes are added and bind to DNA fragments to help them becaome visable.
4. Photographic film produces the DNA fingerprint.
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Accuracy of DNA fingerprints
- Everybody except identical twins has a unique sequence of DNA in their cells.
- Less than 1/1,000,000 chance two people have the exact same repeating pattern in five non-coding sections of DNA.
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RFLP process:
1. Extraction: Obtain DNA out of cell
2. Restriction: Cut DNA into fragments by restriction enzymes.
3. Separation: Gel electrophoresis.
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Electrophoresis
A method of separating molecules by placing them in a gel through an electric feild.
- Used to separate DNA, RNA, and Proteins.
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Electrophoresis and DNA
- DNA is negatively charged
- Repelled by neg end of gel.
- Attracted to pos end of gel.
Separation small fragments travle furthest and biggest shortest.
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(RFLP) Buffer
-Allows DNA to travel
- conducts electricity
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-Micropipette
-Numbering on gel
1. Hold 40 microliters dont hold upsidedown
2. Lable the gels L to R
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PCR is the technique used to...
Quickly make many copies of selected fragmemts of DNA.
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PCR starting materials
1. DNA fragments to be copied
2. DNA polymerase
3. Free nucleotides
4. Primer (single stranded sequences of DNA used to initiate replication)
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Steps of PCR
1. Denaturing: the 4 starting materials are heated to 95c. This denatures (separates) the DNA strands.
2. Annealing: The 4 materials are cooled at 55c. This allows the primers to annel (bond) to the DNA fragments
3. Extending: The 4 starting materials are heated to 72c. This allows DNA polymerase to build DNA strands from primers using freed nucleotides.
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PCR uses (ABC)
A. RFLP requires large amounts of DNA, PCR can get that
B. Running tests
C. Ancient genetic material
D. Covid test
68
1. Cloning Defined
A clone is organism produced by asexual reproduction that is genetically identiacal to its parent.
69
Cloning process: 1,2,3
1. The DNA removed from an unfertilized egg cell.
2. An udder cell (somatic body cell) was removed from a different sheep.
3. The cells were fused using an electric shock.
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Cloning process: 4,5,6
4. The cell was allowed to divide in vitro.
5. The cell was implanted into a surrogate mother
6. Dolly was born, the only one to survive.
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Uses of cloning
A. Producing animals with good traits
B. To transplant organs that can't be rejected.
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Sanger DNA Sequencing
(Chain termination method)
- Sequence DNA by addition of a chain terminating nucleotide dideoxynucleotide.
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5 starting materials
1. Target nucleotides
2. DNA primer
3. DNA polymerase
4. Template
5. Dideoxynuclotides
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Speciation
The formation of a new and different species.
75
Seven steps to become a new species:
1. Reproduction potential
2. Variation 5. Divergence
3. Competition 6. Isolation
4. Natural selection. 7. New species
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Monomer of DNA
Nucleotides
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Reproductive potential
- The relative capacity of a species to reproduce itself under optumum conditions.
Rule: All organisms have the potential to reproduce more than the environment can can support.
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Variation
- Individuals do not evolve, populations do.
- All indivuduals in a population have a certain number of traits that are different.
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What are the 3 kinds of variable traits:
1. Morphological (Morph = form) External traits.
2. Physiological - How their body functions internally
3. Behavioral - How they act/react
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5 sources of variation (only because variation and not environment.
1. Genetic mutations (the only one thay creates a new species)
2. Abnormal changes in chromosome structure or number (trisomy, monosomy)
3. Crossing over and genetic recombination during meiosis.
4. Independent assortmet of chromosomes during meiosis.
5. Fertilization between genetically different gametes.
81
Competition (impacted by the environment)
-In every population there is competition between individuals for different resources. (Food, shelter)
- Those who compete and win survive and reproduce.
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Two types of competition
1. Intrapecific comp - Individuals of the same population must compete for resources.
2. Interspecific comp - Two species compete for the same (limited) resource, they will impact eachothers population.
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Natural selection
- The environment limits the growth population by: increasing the rate of death and decreasing the rate of reproduction.
- Organisms that have a greater number of favorable traits tend to leave more offspring.
- A population of organisms addapt to their environment as their proportion of genes for favorable traits increases.
- Natural selection is a passive process. Organisims don't simply decide to aquire certain traits.
-the environment selects the traits that will increase in a population.
84
Darwin's thoughts
Darwin called the different degrees of successful reproduction amoung organisms in a population: natural selection. ( also graduallism)
85
Types of natural selection
1. Disruptive selection: Individuals with both extreme forms are favored (if it changes) aka disruptive [2 sides]
2. Stabilizing selection: Individuals with the average form are favored [middle]
3. Directional selection: Individuals with an extreme form are favored [one side]
4. There is also sexual selection.
86
Divergence
- A group within a species may slowly branch off or diverge fron the main group.
87
Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equillibrum:
P+q=1
P^2+ 2(pq) + q^2= 1
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Conditions of equillibrium:
1. No natural selection: Equal fittness in the environment.
2. No mutataions: All genes are passed down identically.
3. No migration: No new genes entering or leaving the gene pool.
4. Large population: Can withstand small changes to the environment.
5. Random mating: No sexual selection.
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Isolation
When two parts of a formeely inteebreeding population stop interbreeding.
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Two types of isolation
1. Gographic isolation: physical saparation of members in a population.
2. (Often follows disruptive selection) the result of barriers to successful reproduction between two groups in the same population.
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Two types of reproductive selection (a part of isolation)
1. Prezygotic isolation: Isolation that occurs before fertilization e.g. incomplete behavior (wrong mating call) different mating times.
2. Postzygotic isolation: Isolation that occurs after fertilization e.g. the offspring do not develop fully and die, sterile offsping.
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Morphological concept of species
-Uses the external structure and apperance of an organism to classify it as a species.
-Positive - Easy to use
-Negative - Does allow for any phenotypic differences among individuals in a single population.
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Biological consept of species
- A species is a population of organisms that can successfuly interbreed but cannot interbreed with other groups.
- Positive: Useful definition for living organisms.
- Negative: Useless for extinct organisms; useless for organisms that do not reproduce sexually l.
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How to identify a species
We often combine the two definition for a species today (morphological and biological)
- Thus a species is... a population with morphological similarities that interbreed among themselves successfully.
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Rate of speciation / two perspectives
1. Gradualism: speciation requires millions of years and is caused by evolutionary changes that occur gradually. (Darwinian concept)
2. Punctuated equillibrium: Speciation that occurs suddenly by rapid shifts in the from of organisms followed by periods of no change. Most scientist today agree with this concept.
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Patterns of evolution
1. Divergent evolution: Two or more related populations or species become more different.
2. Convergent evolution: Two organismas that appear to be very similar but are not closely related at all e.g.
3. Coevolution: The change in two or more species in close association with eachother. e.g. preditors and their prey often coevolve. happens to one happens to another.
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The gap between 2 neurons is called
Synapse or junction
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Competitive exclusion principal
Two similar species competing for the same limited resoirce cannot coexist.
99
Evolution
The resulting change in genetic makeup of a population is evolution.
100
Each PCR cycles last...
5 min you can calculate with 2^#of cycles
