Final Flashcards by Alyssa Smith

The inability to “think outside the box” and create a new interpretation of a problem.

fixation

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The inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one. This also occurs during the problem definition stage. Limits our ability to solve problems that require using an object in a novel way.

functional fixedness

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The tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem. Especially common for strategies that have been used recently.

mental set

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A new way to interpret a problem that immediately gives the solution. This rapid understanding is key to the solution.

insight

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Is a step by step procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem. This is slow but it produces no errors.

algorithm

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A solution strategy that seems reasonable given our past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems. Kind of like an educated guess. Faster but has errors.

heuristics

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A rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles that category. Simply put, the rule is: the more representative, the more probable.

representative heuristic

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The erroneous belief that a chance process is self-correcting in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur. Suppose a person has flipped eight heads in a row and we want to bet $100 on the next coin toss, heads or tails. Some people will want to bet on tails because they think its more likely, but in actuality the two events are still equally likely.

gambler’s fallacy

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A heuristic for judging the probability of an event by how available examples of the event are in memory (the more available, the more probable)

We can think of more words beginning with the letter “r” than with “r” in the third position because we organize words in our memories by how they begin. This does not mean that they are more frequent, but only that it is easier to think of them. They are easier to generate from memory. The opposite is the case- words with “r” in the third position are more frequent.

availability heuristic

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Is the erroneous belief that two variables are statistically related when they actually are not. If we believe a relationship exists between two things then we will tend to notice and remember instances that confirm this relationship.

Example:
Many people believe a relationship between weather changes and arthritis. Why? They focus on instances when the weather changes and their arthritic pain increases. To determine if this relationship actually exist we need to consider the frequency of all four possible events, the two that confirm the hypothesis and the two that disconfirm it. The two confirming instances would be:
1. when the weather changes and arthritic pain changes
2. when the weather does not change and arthritic pain does not change
The two disconfirming instance would be:
1. when the weather changes but arthritic pain does not
2. when the weather does not change but arthritic pain does.
The confirming events are not more frequent than the disconfirming events so this means there is no relationship between these two variables.

illusory correlation

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The tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. Our beliefs constitute a large part of our identity; therefore, admitting that we are wrong is very difficult. We mostly suffer from this when our beliefs are proved wrong but we still want to hang on to our beliefs.

belief perseverance

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Questioning a well established finding because we know a person who violates the finding.

Example:
questioning the validity of the finding that smoking leads to health problems, because we know someone who has smoked most of his or her life and has no health problems. This indicates a failure to understand that these research findings are probabilities.

person-who reasoning

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The extent to which the scores for a test are consistent.

Reliability

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Acceptable reliability coefficients should be around what?

0.90 or higher

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Is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure or predicts what it is supposed to predict.

Validity

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Theories:
Intelligence is mainly a function of a general intelligence (g) factor.
General Intelligence, simplistic

Spearman

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Theories:
Intelligence is defined as eight independent intelligences- linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalistic.

8/9 savant syndrome

Gardener

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an index of the degree that variation of a trait within a given population is due to heredity. 50% to 70% of the variation in a population intelligence test scores is estimated to be due to heredity. (NATURE)

heritability

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genetically determined limits for an individual’s intelligence. The higher the environmental quality, the higher the person’s intelligence within the ________. (NURTURE)

130 110
l l
l l
l l
100 80
smart not smart

Reaction Range

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the fertilized egg that is formed from the union of the sperm and the egg cells; 1-2 weeks.

Zygote

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the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy

implantation

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the basic unit of genetic instruction; these are short segments of chromosomes.

gene

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molecules of DNA that hold the genetic instructions for every cell in our body.

chromosomes

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During the _______ stage, (from about two weeks to about two months) the major structures and organs of the body begin to develop, and the ______ starts to resemble a human being.

embryo

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During the _______ stage (from about two months following conception to birth), the developing organism is called a ______, through very rapid growth, the body structures and organs complete their development.

fetus

are environmental agents (such as drugs or viruses), diseases (such as German measles), and physical conditions (such as malnutrition) that prenatal development and lead to birth defects or even death.

teratogens

occurs when mothers consume alcohol during pregnancy, resulting in a range of severe effects including mental retardation and facial abnormalities in the child.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Leads infants to suck anything that touches their lips; this is one of the reflexes that we are born with and is part of our motor development.

sucking reflex

leads infants to turn their mouths toward anything that touches their cheeks and search for anything to suck on; this is one of the reflexes that we are born with and is part of our motor development.

rooting reflex

the act of having the power to move from one place to another; learning walking, sitting, crawling, etc...

locomotion

a decrease in the physiological responding to a stimulus once it becomes familiar For example, infants intensify their sucking of a pacifier in their mouth when confronted with a novel, unfamiliar stimulus. When they get use to the stimulus, the sucking returns to normal.

habituation

Starts at about six or seven months; the rhythmic repetition of various syllables, including both consonants and vowels.

babbling

At about 10 months we may be able to make out something that a child says; At about one year of age, infants begin the _________. Their first words usually refer to their caregivers and objects in their daily environment.

one word stage

is the application of a newly learned word to objects that are not included in the meaning of the word. Occurs during the one word stage. For example, children tend to call any male "daddy"

overextension

is the failure to apply the new word more generally to objects that are included within the meaning of the new word. For example, children do not extend the categories of "dog" or "cat" to dogs and cats beyond the family's pet dog or cat.

under extension

between 18 and 24 months children engage in _______, using two word sentences with mainly nouns and verbs. These two-word statements begin to be expanded, and between the ages of two and five years, children acquire the grammar of their native language. For example, "Dada gone." and "Throw ball."

telegraphic Speech

______ viewed children as little scientist because they are figuring things out by trial and error in the world.

Piaget

from birth to about age two, infants learn about the world through their sensory and motor interactions with it.

sensorimotor stage

from age two to age six, children's thinking becomes more symbolic and language-based, but remains egocentric and lacks the mental operations that allow logical thinking. For example, they now can point to a picture of a dog and say "doggie" or crawl around and pretend to be a dog by barking like a dog.

properational stage

In ______ theory, the _________ is the difference between what a child can actually do and what the child could do with the help of others. This is the development between the levels of actual development and potential development. It means that there are thinking skills that the child can display with the help of others but cannot perform independently.

Vygotsky's; zone of proximal development

In ______, the teacher adjusts the level of help in relation to the child's level of performance, while directing the child's learning progress toward the upper level of the child's zone of proximal development.

scaffolding

people of different ages are studied and compared with one another at a single point in time. compare people not only of different ages but also different generations. Less expensive and less time consuming. No need for continual retesting.

cross-sectional study

the same people are studied as in a cross-sectional study but for a long period of time. This involves collecting data periodically on the same people as they age. This assesses changes in people over time, whereas cross-sectional studies assess differences among age groups at a particular point in time. More time consuming and expensive. Sample could be discontinued for them moving away or dying. Type of intelligence being tested is also important.

longitudinal study

Different generations can lead to what are called _____ - people of a given age are affected by factors unique to their generation, leading to differences in performance among generations. For example, there were significant differences in education and educational opportunities for the various generations across the 20th century. Earlier generations generally received less education, which could certainly account for the intellectual decline observed in the cross-sectional studies.

cohort effects

the emphasis is avoiding punishment and looking out for your own welfare and needs. Moral reasoning is self-oriented. external (tell them not to do it) rewards/punishments

precoventional level of moral reasoning

moral reasoning is based on social rules and laws. Social approval and being a dutiful citizen are important. society norms

conventional level

At the highest level, the _________, moral reasoning is based on self-chosen universal ethical principles, with human rights taking precedence over laws, and on the avoidance of self-condemnation for violating such principles. your own personal moral code.

postconventional level

Infant's first social relationship- between them and their primary caregivers- is important and has been carefully studied by developmental psychologist. This life long emotional bond that exists between the infants and their mothers or other caregivers is formed during the first six months of life and is called _______.

attachment

_______ first thought it was food that formed attachment but through studying infant monkeys _______ found that security or contact comfort is what forms attachment.

Freud; Harlow

Each of us is born with a ______, a set of innate tendencies or dispositions that lead us to behave in certain ways. Our ______ is fundamental to both our personality development and also how we interact with others (our social development). Some infants are more responsive, more active, and happier than others. How infant's ________ matches the childrearing expectations and personality of his caregiver is important in forming the attachment relationship. A good match or fit between the two enhances the probability of a secure attachment.

temperament

________ are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children. dictatorship; control not warmth; "because I said so"

authoritarian parenting

________ are demanding but set rational limits for their children and communicate well with their children. democracy; children are involved; warmth and control; parents explain why they tell the kids to do something. Has the most positive correlations.

Authoritative parenting

________ make few demands and are overly responsive to their children's desires, letting their children do pretty much as they please. warmth and no control; spoiled; kids make decisions

permissive parenting

no warmth or control; pay little to no attention to kids; provide for kids basic needs but little else.

uninvolved parenting

__________ psychosocial stage theory covers the whole life span. It's divided into eight stages of development.

Erikson's

According to ______, the mind has three levels of awareness- the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious.

Freud

is the original personality, the only part present at birth and the part out of which the other two parts of our personality emerge.

The id contains psychic energy, which attempts to satisfy the instinctual drives according to the _______-immediate gratification for these drives without concern for the consequences. Thus the id is like a spoiled child totally self centered and focused on satisfying these drives. For example, if you're hungry the id, using the pleasure principle, would lead you to take any food that is available without concern for whom it belongs to.

pleasure principle

The second part of the personality structure, the ____, starts developing during the first year or so life in order to find realistic outlets for the id's needs. Has the task of protecting the personality while ensuring that the id's drives are satisfied. Is the pragmatic part of the personality; it weighs the risks of an action before acting.

ego

The ego must mediate not only between the instinctual drives of the id and reality but also between these drives and the third part of the personality structure, the ____, which represents the conscience and idealized standards of behavior in a particular culture. The _______ develops during childhood and, like the ego, develops from id energy and spans all levels of awareness. It tells the ego how one ought to act. Acts in accordance with a morality principle. For Example, if the id hunger drive demanded satisfaction, and the ego had found a way to steal some food without being caught, the _______ would threaten to overwhelm the individual with guilt and shame for such an act.

super ego

To prevent being overcome with anxiety, the ego uses what Freud called ________, processes that distort reality and protect us from anxiety. The ego has many different ________ available for such self deception, including repression, denial, displacement, and rationalization.

defense mechanisms

What did Freud think as the primary defense mechanism?

repression

A ______ occurs when a portion of the id's pleasure-seeking energy remains in an earlier psychosexual stage because of excessive or insufficient gratification of our instinctual needs during that stage of development.

fixation

Is an arrangement of the inner needs that motivate behavior, from the strongest needs at the bottom of the pyramid to the weakest needs at the top of the pyramid.

hierarchy of needs

is the fullest realization of a person's potential, becoming all that one can be. According to Maslow, the characteristics of _______ people include accepting themselves, others, and the natural world for what they are; having a need for privacy and only a few very close, emotional relationships; and being autonomous and independent, unquestionably democratic and very creative.

self actualization

The problem is that this self concept might not be the same as our true, ideal self, and thus would deter self actualization. This conflict is created by conditional positive regard, so Rogers developed the concept of _________- acceptance and approval without conditions. In addition to giving us unconditional positive regard (liking us no matter what we are like), it is important that others be empathetic (able to truly understand our feelings) and genuine with respect to their own feelings if we are to self actualize.

unconditional positive regard

Is the set of cognitive processes by which a person observes, evaluates, and regulates her behavior. Social learning illustrates how this system works. Seeing someone do something and copying what they do.

self system

This self evaluation process impacts our senses of _____ - a judgement of ones's effectiveness in dealing with particular situation. Success increases our senses of ______; failure decreases it. look at self and see how good we are at solving situations.

self efficiency

refers to the perception that chance or external forces beyond your personal control determine your fate no self credit

external locus of control

refers to the perception that you control your own fate. better to have passed a class and said it was all because of yourself; self credit

internal locus of control

an external locus of control may contribute to _______ a sense of hopelessness in which individuals think that they are unable to prevent unpleasant events.

learned helplessness

_____ are internally based, relatively stable characteristics that define an individual's personality. _____ are continuous dimensions, and people vary from each other along the dimensions for each of the various traits that make up personality.

traits

is designed to measure multiple traits or, in some cases, disorders. It is a series of questions or statements for which the test taker must indicate whether they apply to him or not.

personality inventory

is a series of ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots, to which the test taker must respond about his perceptions of the stimuli. An objective response format is not used.

projective test

is usually defined as a change in behavior, belief, or both to conform to a group norm as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

Conformity

To understand why conformity was observed in Sherif's study, we need to consider __________. This effect stems from our desire to be right in situations in which the correct action or judgement is not obvious and we need information.

informational social influence

sat at a table and looked at 3 lines then were showed a 4th line and asked which one of the other 3 lines the 4th line was most similar too. Each times judgements were made orally. There were many participants but only one was a real participant that didn't know of the others connection to the study.

Asch's Study

The reason for the conformity is Asch's study is ________, an effect stemming from our desire to gain the approval and to avoid the disapproval of others. We change our behavior to meet the expectations of others. We go along with the crowd.

normative social influence

What are the factors impacting conformity?

Situational, Cultural, & Gender

______ factors that affect whether we conform. 1) Unanimity (more likely to conform) Example: Asch found that the amount of conformity drops if just one of the confederate participants gives an answer-right or wrong- that differs from the rest of the group. 2) Anonymity (less likely to conform) Example: If being able to write down answer rather than answering aloud the amount of conformity dropped dramatically. 3) Status Level (more likely to conform if you have a lower status level) Example: A freshman is more likely to conform to what a senior does than the other way around.

situational

_______ factors also seem to impact the amount of conformity that is observed. 1) Individualism emphasizes individual needs and achievement. 2) Collectivism, in contrast, emphasizes group needs, thereby encouraging conformity and discouraging dissent with the group.

cultural

Evidence for _____ differences in conformity. They observed a high level of conformity for ______ participants, which is consistent with earlier reviews of conformity studies.

gender; female

compliance to a large request is gained by preceding it with a very small request. The tendency is for people who have complied with the small request to comply with the next larger request. This principle is simply to start small and work your way up. One classical experimental demonstration of this technique involves a ugly sign. People are asked directly if this sign could be put in their front yards and the vast majority refused. However a majority of the people who had complied with a much smaller request two weeks earlier agreed to have the large ugly sign put up.

foot in the door technique

Why does the foot in the door technique work?

Once we have made a commitment we feel pressured to remain consistent.

compliance is gained by starting with a large request that is turned down and following it with a more reasonable smaller request. Example: Friend asks you to watch their dog for a month and you refuse and they say well just for the weekend then and you agree but they just needed you for the weekend all along.

door in the face technique

compliance to a costly request is achieved by first getting compliance to an attractive less costly request and then reneging on it. This is similar to the foot in the door technique in that a second larger request is the one desired. However, the first request is one that is very attractive to you. You are not making a concession but rather getting a good deal. However, the "good" part of the deal is then taken away. Car sells men use this.

low ball technique

compliane that throws in something at the end that makes you think its a good deal but it was planned all along.

thats not all technique

Is following the commands of a person in authority. Sometimes constructive and beneficial to us. Can also be destructive.

Obedience

People who are very skilled at what they do will usually do better in front of an audience than by themselves and those who are novices will tend to do worse. This is why it is more accurate to define _______ of the dominant response on a task due to social arousal, leading to improvement on simple or well learned tasks and worse performance on complex or unlearned tasks when other people are present. Doing a simple task (like running) we do better with people around (in a positive way). Increased arousal.

Social Facilitation

the tendency for people to exert less effort when working toward a common goal in a group than when individually accountable. Doing as little as you can get away with.

Social Loafing

the responsibility for the task is diffused across all members of the group; therefore individual accountability is lessened.

diffusion of responsibility

the loss of self awareness and self restraint in a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity. Can be though of as combining the increased arousal in social facilitation with the diminished sense of responsibility in social loafing. People fell less restrained, and therefore may forget their moral values and act spontaneously without thinking.

deindividualization

Is the strengthening of a group's prevailing opinion about a topic following group discussion of the topic. The group members already share the same opinion on an issue, and when they discuss it among themselves, this opinion is further strengthened as members gain additional information from other members in support of the opinion.

group polarization

is a mode of group thinking that impairs decision making; the desire for group harmony overrides a realistic appraisal the possible decisions. The primary concern is to maintain group consensus.

groupthink

the process by which we explain our own behavior and that of others.

attribution

the tendency as an observer to overestimate dispositional influences and underestimate situational influences on others' behavior.

fundamental attribution error

evaluation reactions (positive or negative) toward objects, events, and other people.

attitudes

What 4 things characterize a psychological disorder?

atypical: different maladaptive: interferes with life distressed: causes stress irrational: not rational

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental orders, fifth edition that we have to: 1) consistent communication 2) insurance

DSM-5

What 2 things classify a anxiety disorder?

1. anxiety | 2. maladaptive behaviors

fear of a specific object or situation

specific phobia

panic attacks

panic disorders

has anxiety that he cannot control; has anxiety for no reason and all the time at general things.

generalized anxiety disorder

obsessions: thoughts that are constant and compulsions: actions

OCD

one or more major depressive episodes

major depressive disorder

intense bad feelings

major depressive episode

abnormally elevated mood

manic episode

- break from reality - hallucinations - delusions - disorganized thinking

Schizophrenia

- antisocial - psychopath - sociopath

personality disorders

- drug therapies - helped get people out of institutions - ECT: electricity to give the brain a seizure - psychosurgery: destructive of areas of the brain - lobotomy

Biomedical therapies

- helps person gain insight of unconscious source of problems - developed by Freud - negativity - free association - resistance - past

psychoanalysis

- humanistic - conscious - positivity - present/future - developed by Rogers

Client Centered Therapy

- counterconditioning - systematic desensitization - hierarchy of needs - relaxation of anxiety - SD - start slow work your way up

Behavioral Therapy

changing our thinking

Cognitive Therapy