Final Flashcards

Question

Tversky & Kahneman, 1981: Mental Accounting

Answer 1

Different rules for di erent kinds of money $1,000 inherited from grandfather won in lottery earned found on street -isn’t $1,000 the same no matter where it came from?

Answer 2

Ideal decisions require massive computations Decision making itself involves a cost, in time and effort, which must be factored into the benefit of making better decisions

Answer 3

choosing the first acceptable alternative you find

Answer 4

are rules of thumb that may be helpful but that may not always give the right answer.

Answer 5

-decide how likely something is by how easily it comes to mind. -will be accurate to the degree that frequent and likely events come to mind faster or more strongly than infrequent, unlikely events.

Answer 6

-Subjects read one of two lists of names: 19 famous men, 20 less famous women OR 19 famous women, 20 less famous men -Subjects then had to estimate whether there were more men or women on each list. -Other subjects took a surprise memory test on the lists: they recalled 12 of 19 famous names but only 8 of 20 less famous names

Answer 7

-Subjects read the testimony from a (fictional) trial -The prosecution or defense evidence was made vivid or pallid, depending on condition. -Subjects made their decisions immediately, or next day What should the difference be?

Answer 8

- Subjects viewed interviews with a “prison guard” (guard was humane or inhumane) - Subjects are told that the guard is typical or atypical of guards at that prison - Later attitude test about guards

Answer 9

1. male reproductive‡ 2. breast 6. bladder‡ 10. blood/leukemia* 14. head/brain* *These get more media attention than their frequency indicates. ‡These get less attention. Media attention moved cancers up in people’s estimates of their frequency.

Answer 10

- Things that are memorable or salient are not always the most common or likely - Sometimes, the most valuable information is dull, unmemorable, complicated, or not easily found - Sometimes a really interesting, memorable, striking example is not typical - However, it probably is true that things that come to mind are more likely than things that don’t come to mind, in general.

Answer 11

-Based on similarity or typicality -If something seems similar to other examples of X, you may decide that it is an X -Again, it is probably a generally useful heuristic, but there are cases in which it is misleading (e.g., stereotypes)

Answer 12

-People’s judgments were predictable by representativeness (stereotypes) Base rates tend to be ignored. -Base rates = overall frequency/probability of different outcomes

Answer 13

- P(A&B) must be no greater than P(A) or P(B) - in every case that A&B is true, A is true as well. Thus, P(A) must be at least as large as P(A&B) - any simple option should be ranked higher than a conjunction including it - Let’s consider three options 1) Linda is a bank teller 2) Linda is a bank teller who helps organize anti-Trump protests 3) Linda helps organize anti-Trump protests P(Linda is a bank teller) > P(Linda is a bank teller & helps organize anti-Trump protests) but most people make the opposite judgment! representativeness!

Answer 14

intuitive fast mostly unconscious automatic

Answer 15

reflective slow mostly conscious controlled

Answer 16

-Too much emphasis on errors -Evolutionary Argument -How bad could decision making really be? After all, we are all alive. -Perfect decision-making is impossible in the real world. -Heuristics have “ecological rationality” -human decision making is as good as it can be, i.e., optimal. (Compare to Simon’s concept of satisficing.)

Answer 17

- Have you actually looked at the world? or at people? - Does anything about our decision making really seem optimal? - Consider the last financial crash (2007-8) Improvement -You can only improve your decision making if you recognize that it could be improved. If it’s optimal already, then nothing can be done.

Answer 18

* Gave experts and novices chess boards to look at for 5 seconds. * Subjects then had to recreate them on a real board. * Some of the boards had randomly-placed pieces (why?)

Answer 19

chess masters do not consider many more alternatives than novices do, nor do they necessarily calculate more deeply into the move sequence (de Groot, 1965). • Instead, they seem able to recognize a position as good or bad, and what its strengths and weaknesses are.

Answer 20

- generally know more of the underlying principles of the domain - this is principles of strategy and tactics.

Answer 21

Experts: spend much time analyzing the type of problem it is and then working forwards from that Novices: generate equations that might be used to find the missing information—working backwards

Answer 22

Asked subjects to categorize physics problems • Subjects were graduate students in physics or undergrad who had received an A in the intro course • Subjects read problems and grouped them into related groups.

Answer 23

- Solve lots of different kinds of problems | - Superficially, the problems will not be similar, but the underlying principles will presumably be the same

Answer 24

Taught learners how to solve 6 types of probability problems (e.g., permutations), each with an example (rolling dice, matching photographs, etc.) Then he tested them on new problems that either -matched in content the original one (e.g., both dice) -had new content, not used before -mismatched the content (i.e., matching a different kind of problem) Subjects had to say how to solve the test problem, but didn’t have to solve it.

Answer 25

* Matching content: 76% correct * New content: 43% correct * Mismatching content: 22% correct * If people had been using only the abstract principle, they would have scored identically in all three types * Novices tend to rely on superficial aspects of problems (e.g., dice vs. photographs) to figure out how to solve them, even if these aspects are irrelevant

Answer 26

Listening to Mozart will not make you better at math. | • Experts at chess are not necessarily experts in golf, math, or literature

Answer 27

1) pattern-matching: suggests perceptual skill | 2) Deep underlying principles: suggests abstract knowledge

Answer 28

1) New and complex situations by definition can’t be learned in advance 2) You have to be able to reason through what to do in such situations 3) Some domains are not as perceptual or motor- based as others

Answer 29

1) Perceptually (pattern matching in chess, radiology, etc.) 2) Motorically (e.g., musicians, athletes, surgeons, butchers, typists) 3) In solving problems (diagnosticians, statisticians, mechanics)

Answer 30

1) Use declarative knowledge (slow) 2) Develop procedural knowledge from the declarative (automatized, fast) 3) Refine and enlarge (chunk) the procedural knowledge (slowly increase speed)

Answer 31

FOREVER -Herbert Simon: expert is someone who has seen 10,000 examples of something

Answer 32

``` see text -world class players: 7,410 hours of practice -very good players: 5,301 hours of practice ```

Answer 33

“Surgeons, as a group, adhere to a curious egalitarianism. They believe in practice, not talent. People often assume that you have to have great hands to become a surgeon, but it’s not true... • Attending surgeons say that what’s most important to them [in students] is finding people who are conscientious, industrious, and boneheaded enough to stick at practicing the one difficult thing day and night for years on end.”

Answer 34

“Children who work the earliest and hardest may well be those with the highest level of talent. Most children cannot be cajoled to play music or think about math problems for hours on end, but highly gifted children often cannot be cajoled away from such activities."

Answer 35

Answer may depend on the domain Perhaps anyone can learn to be a fast cigar roller, with only 20 million trials of practice But can anyone become Yo Yo Ma or Jerry Rice with enough practice? Probably not, but maybe you could become very good Cognitive variables may be an important part of the answer, but not the only part motivation physical skill personality may all be important

Answer 36

You have a box of tacks, a book of matches, and a candle (plus other items, in some versions). Goal: Attach the candle to the wall. problem: functional fixedness

Answer 37

1) novel | 2) relevant (=successful?)

Answer 38

1) Preparation and hard work on the problem (unsuccessful) 2) Incubation 3) Insight (aha!) 4) Verification

Answer 39

Draw four straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper that goes through each dot.

Answer 40

* Subjects got two chances to solve the problem, either with incubation or not * Incubation particularly helped the group that got the misleading hint * Incubation may allow de-activation of old, incorrect solutions, so new ideas can be considered.

Answer 41

-examples are often based on very familiar concepts with one or two modifications add, delete, or change a property of a known object

Answer 42

1) Some subjects list as many category members as they can (tools, fruit, or animals) 2) Other subjects make a new example of the category that might be found on an alien planet. The tool people were told to think of a tool for aliens who had no appendages prediction: The availability (i.e., typicality) of items in the category will predict whether they form the basis for a novel tool, or whatever.

Answer 43

-availability of the item in the listing task predicted whether people would use it in making novel tools for aliens --> 68% mentioned earth tools -If subjects were told to use their wildest imagination and not to feel bound by what is found on earth, it made little difference --> 48% mentioned earth objects

Answer 44

- When people try to be creative, they are limited by starting with examples that they already know. - present concepts give us a good idea of what “creative” ideas they will come up with. - further evidence for the importance of typicality in concepts.

Answer 45

- even new inventions often conform to old products and ideas - making the item really new is done in small steps - -> consistent with the creative cognition approach

Answer 46

openness to experiences is important conventional–original unadventurous–daring conforming–independent unartistic-artistic people high on this trait are characterized by curiosity, sensation seeking, rebelliousness

Answer 47

• Individual differences approach ➢ compare those who have lived abroad to those who have not • Duncker candle problem • Difficult negotiation problem (requiring thinking out of the box) • Living abroad predicted success on both problems; Foreign travel did not ``` • Experimental approach ➢ primed different experiences (across subjects) ➢ tested effect on a creativity test • Conditions. Think about... ➢ living abroad ➢ traveling abroad ➢ day in your life at home • Then did the Remote Associates Task ```

Answer 48

(Easy) cottage, Swiss, cake (Hard) right, cat, carbon

Answer 49

Refers to the identification of speech sounds, syllables, and other small units study of speech sounds

Answer 50

- basic unit of speech sounds - sound and articulatory-based unit - not letters

Answer 51

•Different languages have different rules about • Rules are based on properties of the sounds such as – voicing – place of articulation what sounds can be used and how they can be combined.

Answer 52

represents how the sounds frequencies change over time

Answer 53

• one-to-one relationship between sounds and phonemes – each phoneme has a single sound – each sound picks out only one phoneme

Answer 54

• Individual differences in speakers • Coarticulation – [si] vs. [su] – speech segmentation – we don't put spaces between words when we speak – occurs even across word boundaries (hard to say when one word stops and the other begins

Answer 55

* believes that “speech is special” * speech production is implicitly used in speech perception, to solve the coarticulation problem * you work backwards to identify the action that made the speech sound (hence the name) * McGurk effect

Answer 56

Generally but by no means perfectly related to Voice Onset Time (VOT) – amount of time between onset of voicing and rest of the sound (opening of vocal tract) • In English, voiced consonants start voicing at about the same time as the rest of the sound (= 0 VOT) • unvoiced consonants don’t start voicing until 40 ms or so afterwards

Answer 57

Top-down perception can be used to solve some of | the problems of speech perception

Answer 58

-grammatical structure of sentences -specify the phrases possible in the language -helps resolve ambiguity -In many languages, nouns and adjectives must agree in gender or number (not English)

Answer 59

meaning of sentences (and words)

Answer 60

Not only words are ambiguous. Sentence ambiguity often involves a sentence that has two different syntactic structures. • I saw the student looking through my binoculars. • I saw the student looking through my binoculars.

Answer 61

1) Use function words to guess the structure articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs 2) Use syntax to guess what’s coming next late closure (txt)

Answer 62

People often don’t notice that sentences are ambiguous because a syntactic strategy picks one structure, and you don’t notice the other

Answer 63

Sentences that are grammatical but syntactically misleading - start one way but end another - usually not ambiguous.

Answer 64

• Identify content words and use them to build propositions that make sense a top-down strategy

Answer 65

I. Syntax first First identify the major phrases and clauses, and then input this to the semantic strategy. Advantage: syntax is more regular than semantics II. Interactive Use both syntax and semantics in parallel. Advantage: semantics can help prevent syntactic errors like garden paths

Answer 66

Plausible version: The historian read the manuscript had been destroyed in the fire. Readers slow down when they get to “had been.” They were garden-pathed! Sad. -shows evidence of the syntactic strategy to take the noun phrase after the verb as being the direct object (not the beginning of a complement) Implausible version The historian read the statue had been destroyed in the fire. Readers do not slow down when they get to “had been” in the implausible version. The syntactic strategy has been overruled by meaning. control version has the word that inserted

Answer 67

The syntax is the same across sentences, but the plausibility of the direct-object interpretation apparently influenced the sentence structure readers perceived. This gives evidence for the interactive or parallel view of comprehension, as semantics influenced syntax.

Answer 68

Quality Do not say what you believe to be false Do not say that for which you lack sufficient evidence Quantity Make your contribution as informative as is required Do not make your contribution more informative than is required Relation • Be relevant ``` Manner • Avoid obscurity of expression • Avoid ambiguity • Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) • Be orderly ```

Answer 69

So, while you do the cooking, Bill snovels show, does he? (sn-sh exchange) You’re not a pujin pitter-downer, are you? (I-u exchange) Children interfere with your nife lite. (t-f exchange) Glear plue sky. (Fromkin, 1971)

Answer 70

- Words are assembled from scratch every time they’re said - All these speech errors show that people are retrieving the speech sounds and putting them together when they say a word - They must not be retrieving an entire motor sequence, or else they couldn’t make these exchanges -Errors are based on both meaning and sound When people make word errors, the words typically sound similar -However, the words are often related in meaning too—more than predicted by chance

Answer 71

The actors in the soap opera... plural subject, singular local noun The actor in the soap operas... singular subject, plural local noun (Possible completion: “was/were overpaid”) Results: 1% errors in first case but 10% in second. Plural can overcome singular but not vice versa!

Answer 72

1) Reading notebook helps you see that word in a briefly-presented display 2) Reading doctor helps you identify nurse as a word 3) Hearing or producing a syntactic form increases the chance that you will produce it again - even with completely different word

Answer 73

* Mixed sentence-picture displays * People read sentences, which contain primes * They describe pictures * Measure the effect of the prime on picture description e.g., Sentence: The governess made the princess a pot of tea. Picture of a boy handing a guitar to a man

Answer 74

-double object construction The governess made the princess a pot of tea (Agent - Verb - Indirect object – Object) -prepositional construction The governess made a pot of tea for the princess. ( Agent – Verb – Object – Prepositional phrase)

Answer 75

* Active: The dog broke the vase. | * Passive: The vase was broken by the dog.

Answer 76

• Syntactic priming must be procedural - - long lasting, like implicit memory effects - -even though it’s an abstract form of priming, because there’s almost no overlap of words

Final Flashcards

(100 cards)