FINAL Flashcards
(267 cards)
1
Q
Unequal access to the culturally valued resourced of wealth, power and prestige.
A
social inequality
2
Q
how are people distinguished from each other? (3)
A
wealth, power, prestige
3
Q
the material objects that have value in a society
A
wealth
4
Q
the ability to achieve ones goals by influencing the behaviours of others
A
power
5
Q
social honour or respect within a society
A
prestige
6
Q
where do inequalities exist?(6)
A
gender, race/ethnicity, age, class, religion, kinship
7
Q
3 levels of social inequality
A
egalitarian society, rank society, stratified society
8
Q
a society that recognizes few differences in status, wealth, or power
A
egalitarian society
9
Q
Example of egalitarian society
A
foragers with few possessions, no land ownership, little specialization
- division of labour based on gender and age
10
Q
what does egalitarian societies lack?
A
a clear organizational structure
11
Q
those with special skills are not held superior, leaders have influence but no authority, norms emphasize sharing and ideals of interpersonal equality: are all examples of what society?
A
egalitarian
12
Q
a society in which people have unequal access to prestige and status but not unequal access to wealth and power
A
Ranked Society
13
Q
Small-scale foraging societies, such as Ju/’hoansi of Namibia are what society?
A
egalitarian
14
Q
common I horticulture societies where surplus gives rise to resources and privileges :what society?
A
Ranked
15
Q
People divide into hierarchically ordered groups (clans) that differs in terms of prestige and status (not significantly in terms of access to resources (wealth)or power: what society?
A
ranked
16
Q
possible to identify persons with the label of chiefs or “big men” whose inherited position has prestige; what society?
A
ranked
17
Q
can individuals achieve power and prestige in the ranked societies?
A
yes
18
Q
a society with a large population that is divided into several levels based on the degree of social inequality
A
stratified society
19
Q
marked inequalities in access to wealth, power, and prestige; what society?
A
stratified
20
Q
found almost exclusively within complex societies with centralized political systems, large populations; what society?
A
stratified
21
Q
control of wealth and power in the hands of a few; what society?
A
stratified
22
Q
status and rewards are inheritable and social mobility is limited; what society?
A
stratified
23
Q
what are the layers within a stratified society called?
A
strata
24
Q
relatively permanent levels in society seperating people according to their access to wealth, power and prestige
A
strata
25
stratification systems vary in what 5 points?
1. the # of ranked groups
2. the degree to which there is agreement regarding their hierarchical placement
3. the size of the strata
4. the ability of individuals to move within the strata
5. supporting ideology (eg. class or caste)
26
the ability of people to change their social position within the society
social mobility
27
the status an individual acquires during the course of her or his lifetime
achieved status (class)
28
the status a person has by virtue of birth
ascribed status (caste)
29
plato proposed what 2 classes?
rich and poor
30
Aristotle proposed what 3 classes?
upper lass, servile lower class and a worthy middle class
31
those who own the land and machinery (capital)
bourgeoisie
32
those who sell their labour for wages (working class)
proletariat
33
the proletariat became aware of the exploitation and rose up in revolution
class consciousness
34
what does class conflicts do
advance society to become classless and egalitarian: utopia= all would be proletarian
35
what are Webers 3 dimensions of stratification?
1. stratification is not solely economic
2. suggested that class results from interplay of three other significant factors: property (class), prestige (status) and power (party)
3. weber defined class as a group of people with similar "life changes"
36
what are the Classes in Canada? (7)
Upper-upper class, lower- upper class, upper-middle, middle-middle, lower-middle, working-class, lower class
37
1% "old money" established families
upper-upper class
38
2-4% nouveau riche, .com millionaires
lower-upper
39
40-50% of population
middle class
40
upper managerial or professional fields ($100k+)
upper-middle
41
$50-100K
middle middle class
42
middle management, white-collar and highly skilled blue-collar (
lower-middle class
43
1/3 population, no accumulated wealth, less personal satisfaction jobs, fewer opportunities, less social mobility
working class
44
20% of population
lower class
45
social assistance and working poor, poverty cycle, seasonal, part-time workers, minimum wage earners
lower class
46
how are social classes manifested? (9)
1. verbal eveluation
2. patterns of associations
3. language
4. symbolic indicators
5. wealth
6. dress
7. forms of recreation
8. residential location
9. material possessions
47
an example of patterns of association
unlikely a janitor is to associate with a CEO
48
an example of class distinction in Greece?
greeks used footwear as a symbol of wealth and status, slave snot allowed to wear shoes
49
what did king Henry VIII, introduced to regulate and distinguish ranks of societies?
regulated to people to dress in detailed colour, style and fabric to signal their rank in society
50
1984: pierre Bourdieu "cultural capital" the cultural assets of class are (5)
1. speech etiquette
2. dress
3. body language
4. information
5. taste (wine, cigars)
51
lower Class focuse don what
concrete necessities of life
52
high class focused on
art, literate and intellectual leisure actives
53
social reproduction
classes tend to reproduce themselves culturally
54
unlike many countries, Canada can enable a high degree of ___________- up and down
economic mobility
55
the condition in a given society which people lack income required to access the necessities of life, such as food, clothing, shelter, to achieve a minimum level of physical well-being
absolute poverty
56
the condition in a given society which people lack the minimum income required to obtain the society's normal standard of living
relative poverty
57
the threshold of income below which the basic necessities of life cannot be met, or which is deemed adequate in a given country
poverty line
58
a situation in which an individual or family lack permanent, stable housing
homelessness
59
what are some factor that lead to homelessness?
- those who spend 50% or more of their monthly income rent
| - first nations, LGBTQ+ members, minorities
60
cultural items that conveys a persons status
status symbol
61
what was en example of a status symbolic the 16th and 17th cent.?
sugar
62
a stratification system where cultural or racial differences are used as the basis for ascribing status
caste
63
castes are ranked by ______ and _______ customs
purity and pollution
64
the original Sanskrit for the caste system was ______ which means _________
varna, colour
65
4 varnas ranked from importance, prestige, and purity
1. Brahmin
2. Kshatriya
3. Vaishya
4. Sudra
5. Untouchable
66
(priests) scholars, philosophers - rewarded with honour
brahmin
67
(warriors) rulers administrators and organizers- rewarded with power
Kshatriya
68
(the people) merchants, farmers, traders, artisans, engineers - rewarded with wealth
vaishya
69
(servants) unskilled labourers, factory workers, manual labourers- rewarded with freedom from responsibility
sundra
70
in india, musicians are?
harijans
71
Why are Dalits called untouchables?
they are forbidden to physically contact anyone who belongs to one of the 4 Varnas
72
practices such as segregation and denial of access to community resources, which separate Dalits from other caste groups
untouchability practices
73
what is the reason Hindus believe untouchables are born into this class?
bad karma he/she earned in a previous life
74
examples of Dalit jobs:
street cleaners, letter workers,
75
the practice of marrying someone from a higher social strata
hypergamy
76
why did India outlaw caste in 1950?
seen as an obstacle to progress
77
what has weekend the specific association between caste and occupation?
the large number of caste-free occupations: government, business, factories, schools. colleges, services
78
what is the European parallel to Dalit's?
Roma
79
observable physical characteristics
phenotype
80
a rule, and in many U.S. states a law, that if a person had one ancestor who as black, typically one great-great-great-great grandparent, then they are considered black too
one-drop rule
81
the assignment of a child from a mixed race, ethnic group, or other social group to the inferior or lower status group
hypodescent
82
the linguistic and cultural characteristics and heritage that a person identifies with
ethnicity
83
a group of people who share many of the same cultural features and heritage
ethnic groups
84
a society consisting of people from different ethnic, religious, and racial backgrounds
multicultural societies
85
a type of discrimination whereby people are treated differently based on the race they are deemed to belong to
racism
86
where ether institution and systems of society are structured such that the subordinate group is disadvantaged or discriminated against
structural racism
87
in 1700 what were the 4 classified human sub-groups
europeans, asians, indians, africans
88
what did sue Morton discover when measuring skulls and what didi it fuel
found that africans had the smallest brain capacity, while europeans had the highest. fulled a eugenics movement
89
the practice of treating individuals differently simply based on the group (eg. gender, age, sex, gender groups) they belong to
discrimination
90
treating members of the dominant group differently in an effort to remedy previous discrimination against members of a subordinate group
reverse discrimination
91
the systematic and forced removal of an ethnic or religious group from a given geographic area in order to make it religiously and/or ethnically homogenous
ethnic cleansing
92
the systematic murder of an entire group of people
genocide
93
what was the intent of residential schools?
remove "the Indian" from the cold, and replace it with the values and ideologies of the monist European- Canadian christian society
94
the activities associated with the governance of a county or area, especially the debate between parties having power
politics
95
what is political control critical for?
the growth, harmony and perpetuation of a society
96
examples of large societies formal mechanisms for control
judges, armies, bureaucracies, elections
97
the ways in which power is distributed within a society to control peoples behaviour and maintain social order
political organizations
98
the ability to improve or excerice one's will on another, causing them to act or otherwise behave in ways that they usual would not
power
99
the socially-approved use of power
authority
100
the ability to affect the behaviour of others without coercion, and without holding an explicit leadership status or office
influence
101
ways of speaking which are commonly practised and specifically situated in a social environment
discourse
102
conduct research with a practical outcome in mind, often based in assisting with a social problem or history in mind
applied field anthropology
103
research designed to solve a particular social problem rather than test an anthropological theory
problem-oriented research
104
what is the most practiced type of research
problem oriented research
105
what is a risk of anthropology
spending its of time with individuals and developing relationships which make it difficult to ignore social problems participants face
106
the way anthropologists look at and undertones people and cultures
anthropological perspective
107
what are 7 reasons anthropology is useful?
holistic, relative, naturalistic, comparative, global, bio-cultural, reflexivity
108
seeks te larger picture and tries to understand how connections among people are made and sustained
holistic
109
seeing general patterns that are observable from one society to another
comparative
110
the application of anthropological concepts and methods to help businesses and other organizations solve problems
business anthropology
111
focused on international development and aid strategies
development anthropology
112
concerned with the relationships between humans and their environment, goal is to assist with solving human-environment problems and promote sustainable communities
environmental anthropology
113
the application of anthropological connects and methods to the study of educational institutes and processes
educational anthropology
114
anthropologists are well-positioned to advocate for those with access to ______, _____, and ____
power, prestige and representation
115
a system of believes and practices usually involving supernatural beings and forces that functions provide meaning, peach of mind, and a sense of control over unexplainable phenomena
religion
116
what are the 3 problems with "supernatural"
1. ethnocentrism
2. dichotomy
3. identifying the supernatural
117
what we consider as supernatural others may not
Ethnocentrism
118
not all societies make a supernatural/natural distinction
Dichotomy
119
many societies don't have a separate word for religion whats an example?
Kikuyu elders sacrifices a goat, and calls upon he ancestors to help bring rain
120
what are some major features of religion? (7)
beliefs in supernatural, moral code, group membership/, body of myth/legend, rituals, magic and witchcraft, means of explanation
121
what is EB Taylors definition of religion?
belief in spiritual beings = animism
122
what does anima mean
breath or soul
123
the idea that the world and everything in it is filled with souls or spirits
animism
124
a type of religious belief in which impersonal spiritual forces exist in the world and affect human behaviour
animatism
125
a means for dealing with crises, death and illness, gives meaning to life and afterlife, participation in religious ceremonies provides reassurance and even closeness - what kind of approach?
psychological approach
126
provides societal needs, sustains the moral and social order, provides notions of acceptable behaviour, group norms : what approach?
Sociological approach
127
sees religion as a set of symbols and stresses the meaning of those symbols as referents and creators of meaningful life: what approach?
interpretative approach
128
the manipulation of nature using supernatural techniques to accomplish specific aims
magic
129
performing a magical ritual on something that has been in contact with someone to influence that person
contagious magic
130
performing a magical ritual on the likeliness of someone or event to influence the real person or event
imitative magic
131
whats an example of imitate magic?
voodoo doll
132
the practice of foreseeing future events or acquiring hidden knowledge through super natural means
divination
133
ex of divination
palm reading, fortune cookie ,magic ball
134
the inherent power to harm other persons by supernatural means
witchcraft
135
the performance of certain magical rites for the purpose of harming other people
sorcery
136
what the different of witchcraft and sorcery?
sorcery involves using material substances and incantations to cause harm to people, witchcraft is the inherent power of people to cause misfortune or death by supernatural means
137
what are the 4 types (cults) of religious organization?
individualistic, shamaistic, communal, ecclesiastical
138
the least complex type of religious organizations which each person is his or her own religious specialist
individualistic cults
139
religious organization in which part-time religious specialists called shamans intervene with the deities on behalf of their clients
Shamanistic Cults
140
what are shamans thought to have access to?
the supernatural world
141
religious organization in which groups of ordinary people conduct religious ceremonies for the well-being of the total community
communal cults
142
what are 2 categories of communal cults?
rites of passage and rites of solidarity
143
highly complex religious organization in which full-time clergy are employed and example
ecclesiastical cults ex. catholic baptismal ceremony
144
a ritual that celebrates the transition of a person from one social status to another
rites of passage
145
examples of rites of passage
marriage, funerals, baptism
146
what are the 4 phases of rites of passage?
1. seperation
2. Purification rites
3. Transition
4. Incorporation
147
2. Purificational rites
rituals symbolize cutting or separating ex. removal of hair
148
3. Transition- liminal
person symbolically placed "outside" society, normal rules of society suspended
149
4. Incorporation- postliminal
symbolically reborn, completes transition to a new status
150
a ritual that celebrates the transition of a person from one social status to another
rite of passage
151
a stereotyped sequence of civets involving gestures, words, or objects, performed in a sequestered place and designed to influence preternatural (magical) entities or forces on behalf of the actors goals or interest
ritual
152
what is a ritual for Hindu pilgrims?
cleansing their souls by bathing in the holy Ganges
153
what are the 8 characteristics of rituals
1. by definition religious- involve magic
2. Highly structured patterns of behaviour
3. Belief in action
4. out of the ordinary actions
5. performed in a sequestered place
6. provide a sense of solidarity
7. serve function for the people concerned
8. Symbolic
154
3 types of rituals
Calendrical rites, rites of transition or passage, critical or life crisis rites
155
Concerned with the natural world, seasonal
calendrical rites
156
concerned with social world, changes in. the individual's status, role or position
rites of transition or passage
157
curing and magic, concerned with the individual
critical or life-crisis rites
158
what are 4 tasks of a priest, shaman or oracle?
1. healing 2. leading rituals 3. communication with spirits 4. performing magic
159
a religious movement designed to bring about a new way of life within a society
revitalization movement
160
what are 2 ex. of a revitalization movement?
ghost dance and cargo cults
161
what was the Ghost dance
political movement, aimed at elimination of the us government, practiced among plains first nations
162
a Melanesian revitalization movement characterized by rituals intended to bring material goods, that is, cargo
Cargo cult
163
what was the rational behind cargo cults?
during the world WWII tribes thought the planes flying over head bringing food and items to soldiers were sent from gods, and they just had to build an "airport" to intrigue the plane to land so they would get the food on the plane
164
the blending of religions
syncretism
165
what religions are experiencing geographic shifts do to globalization?
Christianity
166
a trend toward merging traditional religious principles with the workings of government
religious nationalism
167
what % of people in Canada are NOT religious, and what is the major religion in
25% and Catholicism
168
a religious movement characterized by a return and strict adherence to the fundamental principles of the religion, and often involving a liberal interpretation of religious texts, as well intolerance of other faiths
religious fundamentalism
169
a trend toward merging traditional religious principles with the workings of government
religious nationalism
170
why is art a great interest to anthropologists?
tells much about a society's capacity for creativity, storytelling, empathy, vision
171
the process and the product of applying certain skills to transform matter, sound, or motion into a form that is deemed aesthetically meaningful to people in a society
art
172
Andersons def of art
meaning is not required, no sense of aesthetics, context is required only in sense of skilfulness
173
an example of intentional art
if building a boat to ride, it is insufficient if it sinks. but if intended for a work of art, doesn't matter if it floats
174
objects whose primary intention wasn't to be a work of art but which are considered to be art objects ex
totem pols, bowls, buffalo masks
175
what are 5 attributes of art objects?
1. skill in manufacture
2. emotional features
3. aesthetic features
4 semantic or interpretative features
5. interrelation
176
rare, expensive, made for the market, uniqueness valued, not utilitarian (art for arts sake) are examples of what type of art?
fine art
177
what was early art produced for?
religious or functional purpose
178
what was early art imbued with?
in harmony with nature, emotion, allied with basic drives:sex and fertility
179
what work is a category of art which is often categorized, to distance non-western peoples (anonymous)
primitive
180
3 perspectives on art
1. functional
2. iconographic (meaning)
3. Aesthetic
181
form vs function of art example
a mask: function to obscure a persons face. but also serves to create a new identify or transform in the form of spirit possession
182
ex of representatiional or iconic systems
totem pole: looks like a raven to some to some it represents a social group
183
what were tatoos used for
to show social position, rank, sex, occupation, local or ethnic identity or religion within a society
184
5 functions of art
1. psychological
2. Political
3. Religious
4. Social
5. Educational
185
what was art also used for
propoganda
186
the study of the relationship between music and other aspects of culture
ethnomusicology
187
what ar ether 4 major interests of ethnomusicology?
1. what sorts of ideas does a culture have about music
2. how I music socially structured
3. what are the characteristics of the music itself
4. what are the material cultures of said music
188
how can Austrian art be interpreted?
their symbols have meanings associated with places, social groups and ancestral tracks that can be read by anyone of they know the key
189
____________ art involves not only how something looks and is appreciated, but also how it is understood
aesthetic
190
Yolngu art the shimmering is interpreted as what? and they also reinforce it with what
as the power of the ancestral beings shining out from the painting .
Reinforced with songs
191
the process of foraging international, political, economic, religious, and socio-culture interconnections and interdependancies
globalization
192
things that cross international boarders?
money, cars, people, calling/emails, culture, food, ideas
193
what was the first item that factored economic globalization?
Obsidian: a black volcanic glass used for tools and weapons
194
a series of trade routes connections China, Asia Minor and the mediterranean
silk road
195
theory to increase export to strengthen national wealth
mercantilism
196
no alternative way of life to be imagined; social reproduction of a "cage"
iron cage
197
an example of an iron cage job
factory worker
198
European colonies where local economic resources were expropriated, and the indigenous peoples used as cheap sources of labour
colonies of exploitation
199
European colonies where large numbers of settlers displaced indigenous groups to become the majority population, thus marginalizing the indigenous peoples
settlement colonies
200
what are 2 theories why the world is unequal?
modernization theory and world systems theory
201
differences in economic development may be explained by inherent socio-cultural differences between the rich and poor
modernization theory
202
what is the modernization theory used for
as a model for planning strategy in developing nations
203
nations of the world are connected in a systematic political and economic network of exchange whereby the wealthy nations exploit the poorer ones
world systems theory
204
what are the 3 areas of world systems theory?
core, periphery, semi-periphery
205
wealthy, technologically advanced, developed countries such as ? (4)
Core: US, UK CAN, GER
206
poor, Developing nations that provide raw materials, and cheap unskilled labour such as?
Periphery:sub-saharan Africa
207
industrializing nations that link the other two, that export the god
Semi-periphery: China, Indonesia, Mexico
208
critiques of modernization theory?
theorists see the loss of culture is a small price to pay for the benefits of modernizing
209
critiques of world systems theory?
assumes that the 3 spheres are eternally at balance with each other
210
the dismantling of Colonia emires by the withdrawal of colonial powers from their colonies, and the acquisition of self-determination and government in the newly independent states
decolonozation
211
why decolonize?
colonies to costly to maintain
212
the idea that developed countries and post-colonial powers maintain political and economic dependency and exploitation of former colonies and less developed countried
neocolonialism
213
3 primary agents responsible for neocolonialism?
- developed countries & former colonialists
- international financial organizations
- multinational corporations
214
taking, adopting and using the elements of one culture by members of another
cultural appropriation
215
what has helped the global trade grow?
improved technology, marketing/mass media, cheap travel, flexible immigration policies
216
poverty, child labour, wages fall under what type of issues
global issues
217
pros of globalization (3)
higher degrees of freedom, improved gender relationships, increased lifespan, job opportunities
218
cons of globalization
environment damage, religious tensions (wars/terrorism), loosing jobs from abroad workers, results in sweatshop workers
219
a person who move from one nation to another
migrant
220
fleeing a home country, and seeking refuge due to war, violence, or threat to life- can include political, social, religious, gender, and ethnicity components
refugee
221
the dispersion of a group of people from their original homeland
diaspora
222
a public policy philosophy that recognizes the legitimacy and equity of all cultures represented in a society
multiculturalism
223
according to weber, what are 3 principal ways in which rule could be rendered legitimate, or rightful, I noted eyes of the governed
1. traditional authority
2. rational-legal authority
3. charasmatic authority
224
rule is accepted by followers because it is believed to be the correct moral order
-members selected for office on the basis of loyalty, not job ability
traditional authority
225
authority established thru rational legal means with 2 key features 1. the system of rule created by laws that have popular support 2. leaders are selected and advanced on the basis of their ability to get the job done
rational-legal
226
some leaders manage to obtain authority over a set of followers by opposing tradition and while operating outside the prevailing system of rule
charismatic authority
227
how is order maintained within.a society?
ideological (internal). behavioural (external), sanctions
228
culturally instilled values (guilt, shame, obligations), expectation of supernatural harm or reward
internal (ideological)
229
informal (gossip, praise), formal (laws, rules), conflict mediators (oracles, oaths), negotiations,
behavioural (external )
230
to refer to an arbiter to settle a dispute between 2 parties after hearing the argument of both
arbitration
231
to make an official decision about who is right in a dispute
adjudication
232
positive and negative ______ encourage or discourage behaviours
sanctions
233
the use, or threatened use of physical force to gain compliance and an example
coercion ex torture
234
how do people Come into compliance
coercion, remuneration (bribes), persuasion
235
rarely more than 30-40 people, kin based, flexible extended family unit, no formal political organization
bands
236
in bands: who makes decisions? how is social order inforced? how are conflicts dealt?
informal leaders/ adults
ridicule and ostracism
negotiation? mediation
237
multiple autonomous small communities that share common identity, usually pastoralists or horticulture, severe hundred/thousand people
tribes
238
in tribes: who makes decisions? how is social order inforced? how are conflicts dealt?
consensus among descent groups
ridicule and ostracism
negotiation/mediation
239
in a tribe, wha does the "big man" do
similar to a village head, but influenced over more than one village
240
social groupings that form outside of the usual categories of family or kinship
sodalities
241
sodalities may be based around ____ and _____
age and gender
242
agriculture, multiple communities share common identity, thousands of people,organization based on hierarchical lineage system
chiefdoms
243
in chiefdoms: who makes decisions? how is social order inforced? how are conflicts dealt?
chiefs
social sanction, use of force
negotiation
244
as leaders, they own, manage and control basic factors of the economy
chiefs
245
chiefs have special access to what 4 things
crops, labour, cash, goods
246
multiple cities that share tax and admin infrastructure system, tens of thousands of billions of people, centralized political organization possessing coercive power
states
247
in states: who makes decisions? how is social order inforced? how are conflicts dealt?
rulers on behalf of populous
official enforcement
negotiation/ centralized arbitration
248
a socio-cultural entity as well as a political community that has legitimacy over a defined territory
nation-state
249
type of states (3)
totalitarian, autocratic, democratic
250
one in which the state has non limit to its power/authority, strives to regulate all aspects of public and private life
totalitarian
251
governed by a leader with absolute and complete power. leadership lasts long periods, change brought on by violent means
autocratic
252
predicated on responding to the will of the people - supreme power is vested in the populace
democracy
253
power rests with the citizens, who periodically elect members of there society to some form of assembly to represent them in decision making
representative democracy
254
a form of nation-state in which the power rests with a single individual or family within which power is inherited ex
monarchy ex queen
255
on individual holds absolute power to make laws (brutally repressive)
dictatorship
256
a nation-state in which ultimate power rests with a city or god
theocracy
257
why is the internet considered a double edged sword
it can do good and bad to people
258
mechanisms of social control for enforcing a society's norms through rewards
positive sanction
259
punishments for violating the norms of a society
negative sanction
260
mechanisms found in all societies that function to encourage people to maintain social norms
social control
261
wha the general public thinks about an issue, which, when brought to bear on an individual, can influence his or her behaviour
public opinion
262
doing what is right in the context of a legal system
justice
263
codified ruled enforced through the legitimate use of physical coercion
law
264
a system of. justice that focuses on revenge and punishment of the wrongdoer
retributive justice
265
a system of justice that focuses on resolving conflict, healing, and restoring harmonious relationships.
restorative justice
266
institutionalized armed conflict between nation-states and other politically distinct groups
warfare
267
4 basic factors that contribute to warfare
1. social problems
2. perceived threats
3. political motivations
4. moral objectives
