Final exam Flashcards
1
Q
4 membranes develop which will protect and nourish the embryo:
A
Yolk Sac
Amnion
Chorion
Allantois
2
Q
Yolk Sac
A
- early site of blood formation
- comes from endoderm
3
Q
Amnion
A
- membrane that surrounds developing embryo and is filled with amniotic fluid
- comes from ectoderm
4
Q
Chorion
A
- membrane that becomes a portion of the placenta and secretes hCG
- comes from trophoblast
5
Q
Allantois
A
- early site of blood formation
- comes from endoderm
6
Q
3 possible functions/things that the Allantois membrane can become
A
- RBC
- umbilical cord
- urinary bladder
7
Q
PLACENTA FORMATION: The placenta is responsible for bringing ___ and _______ to the fetus and taking away waste products, including ____. When fully functional, (3 - 4 months) the placenta will produce ________ and _________
A
PLACENTA FORMATION: The placenta is responsible for bringing O2 and nutrients to the fetus and taking away waste products, including CO2. When fully functional, (3 - 4 months) the placenta will produce progesterone and estrogen.
8
Q
The human gestation period is about
A
40 weeks
9
Q
measurement of gestation: 266 days vs 280 days
A
266 days- measured after ovulation
280 days- measured from the beginning of the last cycle (mensturation)
10
Q
3 stages of labor and how long each takes
A
Stage of Dilation (hours)
Stage of Expulsion (minutes)
Placental Stage (minutes)
11
Q
Name of the delivery of baby
A
Paturition
12
Q
What do pregnancy tests detect?
A
hCG
13
Q
Start of dilation is due to ______
A
cortisol
14
Q
Labor: ACTH –>
A
ACTH –> adrenal (cortisol) –> increase in prostaglandin, decrease in progesterone –> oxytocin
15
Q
Start of labor =
End result of labor =
A
Start of labor = adrenal (cortisol)
End result of labor = oxytocin
16
Q
DNA is broken down into individual _______
A
chromosomes
17
Q
Chromosomes are composed of individual ______
A
genes
18
Q
Each gene codes for..
A
1 trait
19
Q
These 46 chromosomes can be arranged in ______ ______. Each chromosome of the pair, one from the mother and the other from the father, will have the same_____, same ______, and carry the same complement of genetic information.
A
These 46 chromosomes can be arranged in HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS. Each chromosome of the pair, one from the mother and the other from the father, will have the same shape , same size and carry the same complement of genetic information.
20
Q
Chromosomal pairs 1-___ are classified as ______ _________ whereas pair ___ contains the ____ _________– the chromosomes that contain the information that determines the sex of the individual.
A
Chromosomal pairs 1-22 are classified as AUTOSOMAL CHROMOSOMES, whereas pair 23 contains the SEX CHROMOSOMES – the chromosomes that contain the information that determines the sex of the individual.
21
Q
Male and female embryos develop identically until
A
7 weeks after fertilization
22
Q
What gene determines male or female?
A
SRY gene
23
Q
Absence of the SRY gene
A
female
24
Q
Presence of the SRY gene
A
male
25
Is it possible to be XY and not a male?
Yes
26
The variations of a gene
Alleles
27
If alleles are the same the person can be said to be ________ If the alleles are different then the person is ________
If these alleles are the same the person can be said to be **HOMOZYGOUS**. If the alleles are different then the person is **HETEROZYGOUS**.
28
Y chromosome vs X chromosome
The Y chromosome ONLY has genes for sex characteristics, while the X chromosome has genes for sex chromosomes AND other traits
29
Genotype
Listing of alleles present; the genetic makeup of an organism
30
Phenotype
The trait that is expressed; what is visually seen
31
Phenotypes are based on what's
dominant and recessive
32
Having a blood type AB is considered
codominant
33
Just because something is dominant,
doesn't mean it's normal or most common
34
Carrier is when
1 of the 2 alleles is recessive, so despite it being hidden, it can be passed to the next generation
35
Cystic fibrosis leads to
increased thickness of mucus
36
It is important during any type of cell division, that chromosomal pairs divide equally. During meiosis, _________ of the chromosomes can occur, leading to ________ distribution of _________ in the gametes and problems in the offspring.
It is important during any type of cell division, that chromosomal pairs divide equally. During meiosis, **NONDISJUNCTION** of the chromosomes can occur, leading to **unequal distribution of chromosomes** in the gametes and problems in the offspring.
37
Examples of nondisjunction
Things like Turner's Syndrome, Metafemale Syndrome, and Klinefelter's Syndrome
38
What connects the anterior pituitary to the hypothalamus?
HHPV
39
Hormones of the anterior pituitary
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Thyroid stimulating hormone
40
1. Corticotropin RH (CRH) =
2. ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) =
1. hypothalamus
2. anterior pituitary
41
Anything with Rh in it, like GhRh, goes to the ______ _____(instead of the target organ assigned to it)
anterior pituitary
42
The hypothalamus makes two posterior pituitary glands: ______ and _______
How do they travel to the P.P?
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
(HHT)
43
Does the posterior pituitary gland make hormones?
No, it just stores it. The hypothalamus makes them
44
What connects the posterior pituitary to the hypothalamus?
HHT
45
Negative feedback
A stimulus initiates actions that will stop the stimulus
46
Positive feedback
A stimulus initiates actions that will prolong the stimulus
47
_____ is one of the rare examples of _________ in the body
Oxytocin
Positive feedback
48
Humoral Stimulus
hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients in the blood
ex) Calcitonin
49
Neural Stimulus
hormone release caused by neural input
ex) Epinephrine
50
Hormonal Stimulus
hormone release caused by another hormone
ex) Thyroid
51
Ovaries and testes are a _______ stimulus
hormonal
52
The thyroid gland is a _____ stimulus and releases _______
Humoral stimulus
Calcitonin
53
Growth Hormone
Target Organs: bone and muscle
Effect: growth
54
Hyposecretion of GH as a child =
Hypersecretion of GH as a child =
Hypersecretion as an adult =
Dwarfism
Giantism
Acromeagly
55
Oxytocin & Prolactin have ______ with ____ and _____
Oxytocin & Prolactin have **synergism** with **estrogen and progesterone**
56
Oxytocin
Target Organs: mammary glands and uterus
Effect: stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown
57
Prolactin
Target Organ: mammary gland
Effect: stimulates lactation
58
Parathyroid glands are a _____ stimulus and releases
humoral
PTH
59
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
- target organ and effect
Target organ: Thyroid Gland
Effect (T3 and T4): regulates cellular metabolism
60
T3 and T4 are high
TSH and TRH decrease
61
TRH- from______
TSH- from ______
T3, T4 from ______
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
62
T3 and T4 are low
TSH and TRH increase
63
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Target Organ: kidneys
Effect: increases water retention and decreases urine output
Hyposecretion = diabetes
64
______ of ADH causes ______
hyposecretion
diabetes
65
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Juvenile onset (usually kids)
Insulin-dependent (requires insulin, they completely lack it)
66
Gestational Diabetes
Temporary, during pregnancy
May become type 2 diabetic after pregnancy
Baby may come out to be 12+ lbs
67
Diabetes Mellitus leads to fasting ______
hyperglycemia
68
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Adults
Resistance to insulin
Non-insulin dependent
Linked to obesity
69
Diabetes Mellitus, PU/PD:
Results from _________of _______, causing ______ _____ levels to remain ____
Results from hyposecretion of insulin, causing blood glucose levels to remain high
PU/PD = pee and drink alot
70
Blood cells are formed by a process called ______. Within the red bone marrow, there are undifferentiated stem cells called __________, which will give rise to either RBCs. WBCs and platelets.
Blood cells are formed by a process called HEMOPOIESIS. Within the red bone marrow, there are undifferentiated stem cells called HEMOCYTOBLASTS, which will give rise to either RBCs. WBCs and platelets.
71
The process of RBC production is called _______. It occurs in the _____ beginning with as all formed elements do, _______
Erythropoiesis
Red bone marrow
Hemocytoblasts
72
Cells stages present in erythropoiesis:
Hemocytoblast ---> Proerythroblast ---> early, intermediate, late erythroblast ----> Reticulocyte ---> RBC
73
How long does it take for a hemocytoblast to become a mature RBC?
1 week
74
Erythrocytes
-shape
-composed of ____ = an _____
- adult vs early stages?
-Biconcave discs
-Composed of hemoglobin= an oxygen-carrying pigment
-As an adult, they lack a nucleus and mitochondria, but they had them during the early stages of an erythrocyte
75
Hemoglobin contains
4 polypeptides, heme, and iron
76
Benefits of the biconcave shape of erythrocytes
increased surface area and gives cell more flexibility to squeeze through small vessels
77
Which section has a nucleus, and where is each section found
Hemocytoblast ---> Proerythroblast ---> early, intermediate, late erythroblast ----> Reticulocyte ---> RBC
Hemocytoblast ---> Proerythroblast ---> early, intermediate, late erythroblast } all have a nucleus and are only found in the red bone marrow. takes 3-4 days.
Reticulocyte ---> RBC } no nucleus and is only found in the blood. takes 1-2 days.
78
What's the stimulus for Erythropoietin?
Hypoxia
79
The number of RBCs must be kept constant. The body maintains this level by ______, a hormone that controls ______. It's released by the _____ which stimulated the red bone marrow to increase RBC production. The direct stimulus is _____, which means __________.
The number of RBCs must be kept constant. The body maintains this level by ERYTHROPOIETIN, a hormone that controls ERYTHROPOIESIS. It's released by the KIDNEYS which stimulated the red bone marrow to increase RBC production. The direct stimulus is HYPOXIA, which means LACK OF ADEQUATE O2 AT TISSUE LEVEL.
80
Anemia
-what is it
-symptoms
-3 main causes
Reduced oxygen-carrying ability in the blood due to a decrease in RBCs/hemoglobin level
Fatigue, pale, cold
Not produced, lost, destroyed
81
Hemorrhagic anemia
Lost
82
Hemolytic anemia
Destroyed
83
Aplastic anemia
Not produced
84
Dietary anemia
Not produced
85
Pernicious anemia
Not produced
86
Sickle Cell Anemia
Destroyed
87
Abnormal increase of RBCs/too many RBCs is called _____
Polycythemia
88
Primary polycythemia (absolute) vs Secondary polycythemia (relative)
In both cases, the blood is too thick. The result is the same but the cause is different.
Primary/Absolute: red bone marrow is overactive so it can't get oxygen around fast enough
Secondary/Relative: due to dehydration
89
2 types of WBCs and a description/ex.
granular WBCs- 1 lobed nucleus, granules in cytoplasm. ex: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
agranular WBCs- 1 nucleus (not lobed), no granules in cytoplasm. ex: lymphocytes and monocytes
90
Chemotaxis
Attraction of phagocytes to microbes by a chemical stimulus
91
Diapedesis
The movement of WBCs from the blood into tissues
92
Official names of formed elements
Red blood cells = erythrocytes
White blood cells = leukocytes
Platelets = thrombocytes
93
Thrombocytes
-percent of blood
-**fragments of _____**
-survives for _____
-produced from
-**functions to**
1% of blood
Fragments of megakaryocytes
Survives for 5 days
Produced from hemocytoblasts
Functions to prevent blood loss (clotting)
94
3 phases of hemostasis
Vascular Spasms
Platelet Plug
Coagulation (blood clotting)
95
Coagulation
During coagulation, a clot is formed in the injured area
-Procoagulants
-Anticoagulants
96
Procoagulants
Substances that enhances the clot formation: (called clotting factors)
Most are made by the liver and requires vitamin K
97
Anticoagulants
Substances that inhibit the formation of a clot
Endogenous anticoagulants: Heparin, Antithrombin
Exogenous anticoagulants: Heparin, Coumadin, EDTA
98
Fibrinolysis
Removes the unneeded clot when healing occurs
Begins within 2 days (and continues over several days until the clot is dissolved)
99
T-pa could be used as
treatment of a myocardial infection
100
t-PA
activates plasminogen (converts plasminogen to plasmin)
101
What actually breaks down the clot?
Plasmin.
t-PA just converts plasminogen to plasmin, which is the one to break it down
102
Plasminogen
an inactive blood protein that needs to be activated by t-PA to become plasmin, an active enzyme
103
On the surface of RBCs
antigen
104
Those who have antigen A of the surface of their RBC have type __ blood
A
105
Those without antigen A or B have type ___ blood. Those with both antigen A and B have type ___ blood.
O
AB
106
Antibodies
Located in the plasma and react with the antigens of other blood types
107
When incompatible bloods are mixed together, the most dangerous reaction occurs between the ____ of the donor and the _____ of the recipient
antigens
antibodies
108
List each blood type and its antigens and antibodies
Type A:
Type B:
Type AB:
Type O:
Type A:
A antigen and anti-B antibodies
Type B:
B antigen and anti-A antibodies
Type AB:
A and B antigens and no antibodies
Type O:
No antigens and anti-A and anti-B antibodies
109
Universital Recipient and why
AB, no antibodies so the blood won't attack any blood its given
110
Universal Donor and why
Type O, no antigens, won't attack any blood that it gives
111
Those who have Rh antigens on their RBCs are
Those who don't are
Rh positive
Rh negative
112
Normally there are no __________ in the blood of Rh- people. However, they develop ___ exposure to Rh+ blood. This differs from ABO antibodies that are always there in the plasma starting from birth.
anti-Rh antibodies
after
113
Problems can occur in a pregnancy if the mom is Rh ___ and the child is Rh ___. If this happens, _____ ___ __ __ ____ may occur which may be treatable, but is preventable
negative
positive
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
114
B- has no ___ ______, unless it is mentioned that B- has received a previous blood tranfusion by someone with B+ blood, in which it ________
Rh antibodies
does have Rh antibodies
115
Whole blood is composed of a fluid portion called _____ and solid portion called _____ _______. These include ______, ______, and ______
Plasma
Formed elements
RBCs, WBCs, and platelets
116
Majority of whole blood is composed of
plasma (55%)
117
Which is the majority of formed elements? RBCs, WBCs, or platelets?
RBCs
118
The absence of mitochondria in an erythrocyte causes 3 things:
1) more hemoglobin
2) shorted erythrocyte lifespan
3) unused oxygen (the sole purpose of erythrocytes is to carry oxygen to others)
119
Each hemoglobin molecule can carry ___ molecules
4
120
A low reticulocyte count may indicate ___ or ___. A high reticulocyte count may indicate a ____ ____ ____.
anemia or leukemia
recent blood loss
121
Regenerative anemia
5% reticulocyte count
over-generating reticulocytes, possible recent blood loss
122
Nonregenerative anemia
0% reticulocyte count
Under-generating reticulocytes may indicate anemia or leukemia. 0% might make sense if they just lost a lot of blood.
123
% of neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils in the blood
60-70% neutrophils (majority)
2-4% eosinophils
.5-1% basophils
124
Neutrophils
tissue developed in red bone marrow
function: phagocytosis
125
Eosinophils
tissue developed in red bone marrow
function: allergy + parasites
126
Basophils
tissue developed in red bone marrow
function: histamine + heparin
127
Lymphocytes
function: antibodies
tissue developed in red bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
128
Monocytes
function: phagocytosis
tissue developed in red bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
129
Hemostasis
A hemostatic process that will stop the loss of blood (balance of the blood)
130
3 steps to platelet plug formation
1. Platelet adhesion
2. Platelet activation
3. Platelet aggregation
131
Describe the three steps to platelet plug formation:
First comes ______ ______, which is where the thrombocytes ____ to exposed collagen with the assistance of ____ _________ ___.
Second is _____ _______, which releases ________ to ______additional thrombocytes to the area
Lastly is _______ _______, where ____ thrombocytes stick to existing ones with the assistance of _______, creating a plug
First comes platelet adhesion, which is where the thrombocytes stick to exposed collagen with the assistance of von wilebrand factor.
Second is the platelet activation, which releases prostaglandin to attract additional thrombocytes to the area
Lastly is platelet aggregation, where new thrombocytes stick to existing ones with the assistance of fibrinogen, creating a plug
132
Von Willebrand factor
Platelet adhesion
133
Prostaglandin is released during what stage of platelet plug formation?
platelet activation
134
What stage of platelet plug formation involves fibrinogen?
Platelet aggregation
135
Explain the effects of aspirin
Antiprostaglandin prevents prostaglandin from woking, preventing the plug from forming
136
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn: 2 points
Normally, there won't be problems with the first pregnancy, but the formation of Rh antibodies will cause problems in later pregnncies
The mixing of blood occurs during labor. The blood of the newborn and the mother are separate during the pregnancy
137
What is given to Rh- mothers during pregnancy (and within 72 hrs after delivery)?
An injection of **Rhogam** (doesn't allow anti-Rh antibodies to form)
138
Fibrous pericardium
the outer tough fibrous CT sac that surrounds the heart, preventing overfilling
139
Serous pericardium
This _______ ____ is filled with a few milliliters of _____ _____
the thinner, more delicate membrane that is composed of 2 layers (parietal and visceral) with a small space in between.
This PERICARDIAL SPACE is filled with a few milliliters of PERICARDIAL FLUID.
140
Myocardial Infarction
-definition and cause
A heart attack, in which there is death of an area of the myocardium due to interruption of the blood supply. When this occurs, the normal contractile muscle dies and is replaced by fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue) that does not contract.
Cause: thrombus formation in the coronary artery.
141
SA node originates the _____ and is called the _____ of the heart
impulse
pacemaker
142
HEART MURMUR: abnormal sound heard _______________, or that may mask these normal heart sounds. Generally, it is due to a valve not ______ completely or abnormal valve ______.
____ ______occurs around valve and it is heard as a murmur. Not necessarily a pathology as these are often heard in young children due to thin cardiac walls leading to vibrations.
HEART MURMUR: abnormal sound heard BEFORE OR AFTER THE LUB-DUP, or that may mask these normal heart sounds. Generally, it is due to a valve not CLOSING completely or abnormal valve ANATOMY.
BLOOD TURBULENCE occurs around valve and it is heard as a murmur. Not necessarily a pathology as these are often heard in young children due to thin cardiac walls leading to vibrations.
143
Systole
phase of contraction
(high pressures)
144
Diastole
phase of relaxation
(low pressures)
145
Cardiac Output is the
amount of blood ejected by each ventricle per minutes
146
Cardiac Output equation
CO = Stroke Volume X Heart Rate
147
Stroke volume is the
amount of blood ejected from the **left ventricle per beat**
148
Intrinsic regulation:
The amount of blood that is able to fill the ventricles prior to depolarization and the resulting stretching to the ventricular walls is termed the _______. An increased preload due to exercise for example leads to an increase in _____ ____ by causing an increase in stroke volume. This relationship is referred to ______________of the Heart.
The amount of blood that is able to fill the ventricles prior to depolarization and the resulting stretching to the ventricular walls is termed the PRELOAD. An increased preload due to exercise for example leads to an increase in CARDIAC OUTPUT by causing an increase in stroke volume. This relationship is referred to FRANK-STARLINGS LAW of the Heart.
149
Epicardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
Definition and which is the largest layer?
Epicardium- thin, external layer of the heart
Myocardium- cardiac muscle layer, in the middle, intercalated discs, striated, involuntary
Endocardium- thin, lines the inside of the heart
Myocardium is the largest layer
150
The heart is angled obliquely with the apex pointing towards the LEFT HIP resting on the DIAPHRAGM. It's also enclosed in a PERICARDIAL SAC which has 2 layers, the FIBROUS PERICARDIUM, and the SEROUS PERICARDIUM.
**List the order of the pericardial sac from the outside-in**
The ____ is the same layer as the ____
1. Fibrous pericardium
2. Serous pericardium
3. Parietal
4. Visceral
The visceral is the same layer as the epicardiu
151
Valves function to
prevent backflow of the blood
152
List the blood flow THROUGH the heart and whether it's deoxy. or oxygenated blood
SVC, IVC, or CS --> right atrium --> tricuspid valve --> right ventricle --> pulmonary valve --> pulmonary artery --> LUNGS --> pulmonary vein --> left atrium --> bicuspid valve --> left ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta --> BODY
everything before the lungs (right side of the heart) is deoxygenated blood, and everything after (left side of the heart), is oxygenated
153
Where does the impulse start in the heart?
SA node
154
Conduction system through the heart:
1. Under normal conditions, cardiac excitation begins the ___ _____ located in the wall of the ____ ____. Each impulse (action potential) from the SA node travels through both atria and cause them to contract.
2. The impulse moves down to the ___ _____, located in the superior portion of the _________ ____. It is then stimulated and sends the action potential to....
3. the _____ ___ ___ then to the……
4. _____ and _____ _____ _____ within the interventricular septum.
5. Finally, the impulse is passed to the _______ _____, taking the impulse to the myocardium of the ventricles and causing a contraction of the ventricles.
1. Under normal conditions, cardiac excitation begins the SINOATRIAL NODE (SA node), located in the wall of the RIGHT ATRIUM. Each impulse (action potential) from the SA node travels through both atria and cause them to contract.
2. The impulse moves down to the ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE (AV node), located in the superior portion of the INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM. It is then stimulated and sends the action potential to....
3. the BUNDLE OF HIS then to the……
4. RIGHT and LEFT BRANCH BUNDLES within the interventricular septum.
5. Finally, the impulse is passed to the PURKINJE FIBERS, taking the impulse to the myocardium of the ventricles and causing a contraction of the ventricles.
155
Heart: 1st sound occurs
during the QRS and is due to the closing of the AV valves
156
Heart: 2nd sound occurs
during the T wave and is due to the closing of the SLV valves
157
P wave
atrial depolarization
AV open, SLV closed
158
QRS complex
ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization
AV closing, SLV open (1st sound)
159
T wave
ventricular repolarization
SLV closing (2nd sound)
AV closed
160
What causes a heart murmur?
Blood turbulence
161
What causes the heart sounds heard with a stethoscope?
Closure of the valves
162
How is cardiac output adjusted?
Stroke Volume X Heart Rate
163
Arteries:
vessels carrying blood ___ from the heart
usually this blood is ____
large diameter: ____ arteries and ____ arteries
3 layers of tissue
vessels carrying blood AWAY from the heart
usually, this blood is OXYGENATED
large diameter: ELASTIC arteries and MUSCULAR arteries
3 layers of tissue
164
Arterioles and metarterioles
connects arteries with capillaries
165
Capillaries:
a. Composed of single layer of ______
b. Lumen size large enough to allow one ___to flow per unit time - allows for ______________;_______
c. exist in capillary ___ (capillary networks) - when tissue needs are low, blood will flow only through a ___ portion of the network. When needs increase, the entire capillary bed is full of blood. Regulated by: _________________________________. Blood can also be shunted through the capillary bed going from the metarteriole to a _______ _____
a. endothelium
b. RBC- allows for exchange of nutrients/wastes; decreased velocity
c. bed, small
Regulated by: precapillary sphincters
thoroughfare channel
166
Veins
- carries blood towards the heart
- usually carries deoxygenated blood
- 3 tunicas which are very thin with a large lumen
167
Edema
an abnormal increase in interstitial fluid
168
Hydrostatic pressure
**pushes** fluid out of capillary
169
Oncotic pressure
**pulls** fluid back into capillary
170
Problems with hypertension
Heart effects:
Vessel effects:
Heart effects: afterload
Vessel effects: elasticity
171
Hypertension:
Normally occurs when individual is physically or emotionally stressed. However, ________ _______ is constant high B/P over time and is also called the ______ _____. The person may feel fine for 10 - 20 years, but have increasing B/P. This slowly strains the heart and vessels. (140/90)
Hypertension also causes damage to the endothelial layer of the vessels leading to atherosclerosis and finally arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
However, PERSISTENT HYPERTENSION is constant high B/P over time and is also called the SILENT KILLER. The person may feel fine for 10 - 20 years, but have increasing B/P. This slowly strains the heart and vessels. (140/90)
Hypertension also causes damage to the endothelial layer of the vessels leading to atherosclerosis and finally arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
172
Hypotension
Low BP
If the BP is extremely low, it could cause kidney shutdown
173
Circulatory **Shock**
Inadequate perfusion to the tissues
174
Symptoms of shock
Fast HR
Weak pulse
Cold
Pale (gingiva)
CRT is <2 secs
175
What layer is affected in vasoconstriction/dilatation?
Tunica media
176
What vessel will have the greatest effect on vasoconstriction/vasodilation?
artery
venule
arteriole
vein
arteriole
177
Summary of where blood vessels are carried:
Heart -> arteries -> arterioles -> metarteriole -> capillary -> venules -> veins -> heart
178
In veins. there is no ____ _____ in the tunica interna, meaning they stay dilated. This is also why you wouldn't measure pulse or blood pressure. However, they're great for _____ ____
elastic membrane
drawing blood
179
3 Tunicas of veins:
1. Tunica interna: endothelium
2. Tunica media: smooth muscle (not as much as arteries though)
3. Tunica externa: thickest, mainly composed of collagen
180
3 distinct layers of arteries:
1. Tunica Intima: deepest tunica consisting of ______ = single layer of epithelial cells lining the heart and vessels and an _____ _____ ______
2. Tunica Media: ____ layer consisting of ____ muscle and an _____ _____ membrane
3. Tunic Externa: _____ and _____fibers
1. deepest tunica consisting of ENDOTHELIUM = single layer of epithelial cells lining the HEART and VESSELS, and an INTERNAL ELASTIC MEMBRANE
2. usually thickest layer consisting of SMOOTH MUSCLE and in some vessels, an EXTERNAL ELASTIC MEMBRANE
3. elastic and collagen fibers
181
Capillaries are the site of material moving in and out of the circulatory system. There is gas exchange occurring at the tissue level and there is ____ _____ of large amounts of ions, proteins, other nutrients and water.
The bulk flow ___ of the capillary occurs at the arteriole end. At the venule end, the fluid moves ____ the capillary from the tissue spaces. In health, approximately 85% of the fluid at the arteriole ends of the capillaries is reabsorbed at the venule end. Some of the escaped fluid and proteins will be returned to the blood via the lymphatic system. Approximately 20 liters of fluid filters out of the capillaries each day, 17 liters will be reabsorbed by the capillary and 3 liters enter the lymphatics. The _______ ______ forces fluid out of the capillary while _____ _____ helps to return fluid back to the vessel.
Capillaries are the site of material moving in and out of the circulatory system. There is gas exchange occurring at the tissue level and there is BULK FLOW of large amounts of ions, proteins, other nutrients and water.
The bulk flow OUT of the capillary occurs at the arteriole end. At the venule end, the fluid moves INTO the capillary from the tissue spaces. In health, approximately 85% of the fluid at the arteriole ends of the capillaries is reabsorbed at the venule end. Some of the escaped fluid and proteins will be returned to the blood via the lymphatic system. Approximately 20 liters of fluid filters out of the capillaries each day, 17 liters will be reabsorbed by the capillary and 3 liters enter the lymphatics. The HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE forces fluid out of the capillary while ONCOTIC PRESSURE helps to return fluid back to the vessel.
182
If bulk flow is impaired, an edema results. What are 4 possible causes of edema?
- Blocked lymphatics
- Increased hydrostatic pressure
- Decreased oncotic pressure
- Increased capillary permeability
183
Common pulse locations
neck- carotid artery
wrist- radial artery
groin- femoral artery
184
Pulse is always measured with
arteries
185
From where is blood collected?
veins
186
What types of shock are due to hypovolemia? What does hypovolemia mean?
Hemorrhagic shock
Plasma loss shock
Dehydration
hypovoleima = low blood volume
187
What types of shock are due to vasodialation
Anesthesia
Anaphylactic shock
Infection
Neurogenic
188
**Fetal Circulation**
Circulation in the fetus is different than in the adult human because the _____ are nonfunctional. The fetus derives its oxygen and nutrients from maternal blood and eliminates its wastes into the maternal blood by diffusion.
Lungs are nonfunctional
189
1. Umbilical vein becomes
the ligamentum teres
190
2. Ductus venosus
becomes the ligamentum venosum
bypasses the liver
191
3. Umbilical artery
becomes the median umbilical ligaments
192
4. Foramen Ovale
becomes the fossa ovalis
bypasses the lungs
connects the right and left atrium
193
5. Ductus Arteriosus
becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
bypasses the lungs
connects the pulmonary artery and aorta
194
Spleen- functions
- Blood production (fetus)
- Immune function
- Removes old RBCs
195
Thymus
-secretes ______ which allows for..
-____ ______
-location is anterior and superior to heart
-secretes hormones (THYMOSIN) which allows for the maturation of the T lymphocyte.
-age dependent
196
Tonsils: MALT
Mucosa
Associated
Lymph
Tissue
197
Innate Immunity
- Functional at birth
- No memory (nonspecific defense)
198
Adaptive Immunity
- Develops as a person ages
- Memory (specific defense)
199
Components of innate immunity:
Species Resistance
Mechanical Barriers
Chemical Mediators
Natural Killer Cells
Phagocytes
Inflammatory Response
Fever
200
How do interferons work?
It protects neighboring unaffected cells
201
Innate immunity:
Examples of complement activites (summary)
1. Membrane Attack Complex
2. Inflammatory response (chemotaxis, histamine)
3. Opsonization
202
Inflammation- the inflammation response will:
1. Keep the infection localized
2. Dispose of debris and pathogens
3. Set the stage for repair
4. Alerts the adaptive immune response
203
4 signs of inflammation:
redness, heat, swelling, pain
*in more serious injuries, there may be a loss of function (categorized under pain)
204
MHC 1
nucleated
found on fixed cells
205
MCH 2
found on wandering cells
206
List the different types of antibodies. What is each antibody associated with?
IgG- chronic (long term)
IgA- mucous membrane
IgM- acute (immediate)
IgE- allergy and parasites
IgD
207
Primary vs Secondary antibody-mediated immune responses to the same antigen
In a secondary respone, there's a decrease in lag time and an increase in antibodies
208
Lag time
Time between invasion of antigen into body and appearance of antibodies
209
Active natural immunity
common cold
210
Passive natural immunity
nursing/breastfeeding
211
Active artificial immunity
vaccine
212
Passive artificial immunity
transfusion
213
What cell is important in autoimmune diseases?
Regulatory T
214
T lymphocyte activation cells involve:
Cytotoxic T
Helper T (Th1)
Memory T
Regulatory T
215
B lymphocyte activation cells involve:
B cells
Plasma cells
Memory B
Helper T (Th2)
216
Important points- T Cell Activation:
- Infected cells are displaying _____ _ ______ antigens
- APC displays both _____ __ and ____ __
- Interleukin ____ produced by APC causes Th to become ___
- Interleukin ___ produced by both Th1 and T8- activates ___
- Infected cells are displaying **MHC 1 endogenous** antigens
- APC displays both **MHC 1 and MHC 2**
- Interleukin **12** produced by **APC** causes Th to become **Th1**
- Interleukin **2** produced by both Th1 and T8- activates **T8**
217
Key points of B cell Activation:
- _____ (both dendritic and B cell) displays _____
- Interleukin ___ causes Th to become ___
- Interleukin __ from Th also activates ______ to become _____ ____
- _______ made by plasma cells attack _______ antigens
- **APC's** (both dendritic and B cell) displays **MHC 2**
- **Interleukin 4** causes Th to become **Th2**
- Interleukin **4** from Th also activates **B cell** to become **plasma cells**
- **Antibodies** made by plasma cells attack **exogenous** antigens
218
THORACIC DUCT: much larger duct that drains lymph from the rest of the body including the....... into the _____ ______ ______
THORACIC DUCT: much larger duct that drains lymph from the rest of the body including
the left side of the head, left chest, the left upper arm and the entire body below the diaphragm into the LEFT SUBCLAVIAN VEIN
219
What helps fluid move in the lymphatics?
Valves
Milking by skeletal muscles
Breathing
220
Lymph Node- 2 functions
1. Filter lymph
2. contains germination centers for lymphocytes and monocytes (they will mass produce lymphocytes if there's too much bacteria caught in the web so that they can "eat" more)
221
Movement in the vessels:
Capillaries -> vessels -> trunks -> ducts
222
Route of lymph
Lymph capillaries -> afferent lymphatic vessels -> lymph nodes -> efferent lymphatic vessels -> lymphatic trunks -> lymphatic ducts
223
Functions of the lymphatics:
1. fluid balance
2. lipid absorption/transport
3. defense
224
Opsonization can also be termed as
enhancing phagocytosis- helps phagocytes to adhere to the pathogen
225
Recognition of Antigen by T and B Cells: Although some antigens bind to their receptors and directly activate B and T cells, most lymphocyte recognition involves glycoproteins on the cells called ______ ___________ ________. MHCs are unique to each individual unless s/he has an identical twin. They are found on all cell membranes except _____ Once recognition occurs, the specific lymphocyte goes through cell division, increasing the number of cells equipped to destroy the antigen.
Recognition of Antigen by T and B Cells: Although some antigens bind to their receptors and directly activate B and T cells, most lymphocyte recognition involves glycoproteins on the cells called MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEXES (MHCs). MHCs are unique to each individual unless s/he has an identical twin. They are found on all cell membranes except **red blood cells**. Once recognition occurs, the specific lymphocyte goes through cell division, increasing the number of cells equipped to destroy the antigen.
226
IL-4 does not come from
Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)- outside
227
APC
1. monocytes (macrophage)
2. B cell
3. Dendritic cells
228
Costimulation
Interaction between leukocytes
229
Recognition between the specific antigen and its T and B lymphocytes also needs __________ with cytokines and other cells called _______ __ ______. These are the type of cells that proliferate first when meeting an antigen through their secretion of ________ (a cytokine). The specific T/B cells increase and will be directly responsible for destroying the antigen by _________ of these specific lymphocytes into identical cells called a ____.
Recognition between the specific antigen and its T and B lymphocytes also needs COSTIMULATION with cytokines and other cells called HELPER T CELLS. These are the type of cells that proliferate first when meeting an antigen through their secretion of INTERLEUKIN (a cytokine). The specific T/B cells increase and will be directly responsible for destroying the antigen by PROLIFERATION of these specific lymphocytes into identical cells called a CLONE.
230
It is essential for our body to maintain a constant internal body temperature in order to maintain ________. If temperature fluctuates, _____ do not function properly. The ________ is responsible for maintaining/regulating body temp within a narrow range.
It is essential for our body to maintain a constant internal body temperature in order to maintain HOMEOSTASIS. If temperature fluctuates, ENZYMES do not function properly. The HYPOTHALAMUS is responsible for maintaining/regulating body temp within a narrow range.
231
HYPERTHERMIA- heat ___ exceeds heat ____. Common causes include ____, _________, and _____. Unlike hypothermia, enzymes get ______ as a result of increased temp. This occurs at different temperatures depending on the age and overall health status of the individual.
HYPERTHERMIA- **heat gain exceeds heat loss**. Common causes include **exercise, environmental, and fever**. Unlike hypothermia, enzymes get **denatured** as a result of increased temp. This occurs at different temperatures depending on the age and overall health status of the individual.
232
Typically associate hypothermia with ___ degrees Fahrenheit or lower. Affects enzymes by ____ them down. Symptoms include: decreased heart rate, decreased resp rate, decreased metabolism, coma, and death.
Typically associate hypothermia with **95** degrees Fahrenheit or lower. Affects enzymes by **slowing them down**. Symptoms include: decreased heart rate, decreased resp rate, decreased metabolism, coma, and death. Hypothermia can also be therapeutic- ex: **open heart surgery**
233
Common causes of hypothermia
environmental and anesthesia
234
Physiological (involuntary) changes with hypothermia
- Shivering
- Vasoconstriction
235
Radiation
UV light, heat gain
236
Conduction
Touching, both gain and loss
237
Convection
Air, both gain and loss
238
Evaporation
Water vapor, loss
239
Metabolism
Chemical reactions, gain
240
Basal metabolic rate
energy that keeps resting body functioning (60%)- majority
241
Thermic effect of food
energy needed for digestion of food (10%)- least
242
Muscle activity
energy used for movement of skeletal muscles (30%)
243
Mouth- distance and time
Distance: a few inches
Time: a few seconds
244
Distance and time for esophagus
Distance: 8-10 inches
Time: few seconds
245
Distance and time for the stomach
Distance: 6 inches
Time: 2-6 hours
246
Distance/time for small intestine
Distance: 20 ft
Time: 3-4 hrs
247
Distance/time of large intestine
Distance: 5-6 ft
Time: 12-18 hrs
248
Longest distance of the digestive system?
small intestine
249
Longest time for the digestive system?
Large intestine
250
Summary (for mouth):
Ingestion-
Motility-
Mechanical Digestion-
Chemical Digestion-
Absorption-
Elimination-
Ingestion- yes! (mouth is only area for this)
Motility- mastication
Mechanical Digestion- mastication
Chemical Digestion- salivary amylase
Absorption- no
Elimination- no
251
Summary (for pharynx):
Ingestion-
Motility-
Mechanical Digestion-
Chemical Digestion-
Absorption-
Elimination-
Ingestion- no
Motility- deglutination
Mechanical Digestion- deglutination
Chemical Digestion- continuation of salivary amylase (functions, but not produced)
Absorption- no
Elimination- no
252
Summary (for esophagus):
Ingestion-
Motility-
Mechanical Digestion-
Chemical Digestion-
Absorption-
Elimination-
Ingestion- no
Motility- peristalsis
Mechanical Digestion- peristalsis
Chemical Digestion- salivary amylase (still functions)
Absorption- no
Elimination- no
253
Summary for stomach:
Ingestion-
Motility-
Mechanical Digestion-
Chemical Digestion-
Absorption-
Elimination-
Ingestion- no
Motility- Peristalsis
Mechanical Digestion- Peristalsis and Mixing waves
Chemical Digestion- Pepsin (digests proteins) and Gastric lipase (optional)
Absorption- Yes, limited
Elimination- no
254
Summary for the small intestine-
Ingestion-
Motility-
Mechanical Digestion-
Chemical Digestion-
Absorption-
Elimination-
Ingestion- no
Motility- Peristalsis
Mechanical Digestion- Peristalsis, segmentation
Chemical Digestion- Disaccharides, Nucleases, Peptidases
**Absorption**- HPV, lacteal
Elimination- no
255
1st place absorption begins
stomach
256
1st place organic molecules are absorbed
small intestine
257
Pepsinogen is activated by..
HCL
258
Acini cells produce all of the following except:
Bile
Trypsinogen
Amylase
Nuclease
Bile (made by hepatocytes)
259
Proper anatomical term for swallowing
Deglutition
260
Peristalsis
**Involuntary wave-like contractions of smooth muscle**. In the G.I. tract, these contractions push digesting food forward.
261
What structure is responsible for controlling the movement of air and food?
Epiglottis
262
Stimulus for emptying of the gall bladder (contraction/relaxation of the sphincter)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
263
Inability of the body to produce insulin, to produce active insulin, or failure of receptors to work properly. The result is that the blood glucose levels rise and none reach the cells.
Diabetes Mellitus
264
Components of the portal triad
Hepatic artery, Hepatic portal vein, Hepatic duct
265
Portal triad carries ______ blood and central vein carries _____
Portal triad carries **oxygenated** blood and central vein carries **deoxygenated** blood
266
In the portal triad, blood flows..
towards the central vein
267
What components make up the renal tubule?
A proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), a loop of Henle (LOH), a distal convoluted tubule (DCT), and a collecting duct (CD)
268
In tubular reabsorption, all glucose molecules will enter the PCT by _____ and leave the PCT by _____ _____ using a transporter.
by **cotransport** and leave the PCT by **facilitated diffusion** using a transporter.
269
______ _____: This is the third process that is involved with the formation of urine.
Secretion: The ______ of materials that are___ ______ by the body. The primary location for secretion is the ____ and _____.
**Tubular Secretion**: This is the third process that is involved with the formation of urine.
Secretion: The **removal** of materials that are **not needed** by the body. The primary location for secretion is the **PCT and DCT.** (proximal/convoluted tubule)
270
What components make up the renal corpuscle?
The glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule
271
Urine is the fluid that is produced by the kidneys that contain wastes or excess materials.
The nephron forms urine by three different processes:
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3.Tubular secretion
272
Glomerular Filtration: This occurs in the ___ ____, which is composed of the glomerulus plus the Bowman’s capsule. The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries, which is closely associated with the Bowman’s Capsule. The capsule wall is indented to form a double layered chamber. The outer wall is called the _____ LAYER and the inner portion is the _____ LAYER. It is the visceral layer that is closely associated with the walls of the glomerulus and is composed of _____ _____that actually wrap around the glomerular capillaries.
Glomerular Filtration: This occurs in the **renal corpuscle**, which is composed of the glomerulus plus the Bowman’s capsule. The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries, which is closely associated with the Bowman’s Capsule. The capsule wall is indented to form a double layered chamber. The outer wall is called the **PARIETAL LAYER** and the inner portion is the **VISCERAL LAYER**. It is the visceral layer that is closely associated with the walls of the glomerulus and is composed of **PODOCYTE CELLS** that actually wrap around the glomerular capillaries.
273
Glomerular Filtration involves a _____ _____ (____). Also keep in mind that ___ is important.
Glomerular Filtration involves a **pressure gradient (Hydrostatic)**. Also keep in mind that **size** is important.
274
Glomerular filtation:
Blood enters the glomerulus by way of an ______ ARTERIOLE. The blood pressure forces some water and dissolved solutes from the blood through the fenestrae of the capillaries and through the filtration slits of the Bowman’s capsule. This fluid holds wastes that need to be gotten rid of, plus solutes that are valuable and need to return to the body. This fluid is called _____ and is what urine will be derived from. Not everything is filtered by the glomerulus. Some material like _____ and ____ will remain in the blood vessels. This blood will then be taken away from the glomerulus by the ______ ARTERIOLE. The formation of filtrate depends upon the ______ ______, created inside of the glomerulus, being high enough to form filtrate. **To help in this pressure formation, ....**
Blood enters the glomerulus by way of an **AFFERENT ARTERIOLE**. (afferent = towards, arteriole = small blood vessel). The blood pressure forces some water and dissolved solutes from the blood through the fenestrae of the capillaries and through the filtration slits of the Bowman’s capsule. This fluid holds wastes that need to be gotten rid of, plus solutes that are valuable and need to return to the body. This fluid is called **FILTRATE** and is what urine will be derived from. Not everything is filtered by the glomerulus. Some material like red blood cells and proteins will remain in the blood vessels. This blood will then be taken away from the glomerulus by the **EFFERENT ARTERIOLE** (efferent = away from). The formation of filtrate depends upon the **HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE**, created inside of the glomerulus, being high enough to form filtrate. To help in this pressure formation, **the efferent arteriole has a smaller lumen than the afferent arteriole**.
275
The only membrane transport being used in Glomerular Filtration is
filtration
276
Tubular reabsorption occurs throughout the tubular system, but the major site is the _______ _____ _____
PCT
277
4 transport methods used for tubular reabsorption
- Active transport
- Secondary active transport
- Facilitated diffusion
- Osmosis
278
Secondary active transport and Osmosis occurs on the
Apical surface
279
Facilitated diffusion and Osmosis occur on the
Basal surface
280
The goal of tubular reabsorption
To get solutes that are nutrients back into the blood
281
In tubular reabsorption, all glucose molecules will enter the PCT by _____ and leave the PCT by _____ _____ using a transporter.
Normally, all glucose molecules will enter the PCT by **cotransport** and leave the PCT by **facilitated diffusion** using a transporter.
282
After glucose tubular reabsorption, absorption occurs in the _____ _____ _____ and _____ ____. This reabsorption is the only one to be under the control of _____, and is called _____ ___ ________
After glucose tubular reabsorption, absorption occurs in the **Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct**. This reabsorption is the only one to be under the control of **hormones**, and is called **Falculative water reabsorption**.
283
Hormones involved with reabsorption from the Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct:
antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone
284
The stimulus for release in both ADH and Aldosterone is
Hypotension
285
Result of ADH
increases the permeability of water
286
Diabetes insipidus
Hyposecretion of ADH
Massive amount of urination leading to dehydration/thirst
287
Aldosterone result
increases the permeability for sodium
288
Pathway involved for Aldosterone
Renin -> Angiotensinogen -> Angiotensin 1 -> Angiotensin 2 -> Aldosterone
289
Tubular Secretion
1. ______ ______on basal surface
2. ________ instead of _____. This gets rid of the ___, putting it into the filtrate
1. Active transport
2. **Countertransport** instead of cotransport. This gets rid of the **H+**, putting it into the filtrate
290
What are the requirements for glomerular filtration to occur and be successful?
Hydrostatic pressure and the size of the efferent arteriole
291
How does the glucose in tubular reabsorption contribute to the symptoms observed in a diabetic patient?
Symptoms: PU (peeing a lot) PD (drinking a lot)
- Where solute (glucose) goes, water goes with it
292
Anatomy/pathway of the respiratory system:
nose -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchial tree -> lungs
293
**Upper** respiratory tract
nose, pharynx
294
**Lower** respiratory tract
larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs
295
Conducting:
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and upper half of bronchial tree
296
Respiratory:
Lower half of bronchial tree and lungs
297
Trachea is
lower and conducting
298
Pharynx is
upper and conducting
299
Alveolus is
lower and respiratory
300
Cells within the alveolus and function of each
Alveolar Macrophages- Cells that wander and remove dust particles an debris (filters)
Type I pneumocytes- cells where actual **gas exchange** occurs
Type II pneumocytes- produce a slippery substance called **SURFACTANT** which prohibits the internal lung surfaces from sticking to each other.
301
The surfactant that's produced by type 2 pneumocytes:
provides surface tension and keeps alveoli from collapsing
302
Pulmonary Ventilation - Inspiration/Inhalation
- Diaphragm contracts
- External intercostals contract
- Parietal pleura pulls on visceral pleura
Volume increases, pressure decreases
303
Boyle's law
Volume and pressure are inversely proportional.
304
Pulmonary Ventilation - Expiration/Exhalation
- Diaphragm relaxes
- External intercostals relax
- Visceral pleura pulls on parietal pleura
- Elastic fibers recoil
Volume decreases, pressure increase
305
During exertion, ______ ______ occurs, allowing more air into the lungs. This is not _____, and the ______ _______ contract, pulling the ribs downward. ______ ________ are also contracting.
During exertion, **ACTIVE BREATHING** occurs, allowing more air into the lungs. This is not **passive**, and the **INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS** contract, pulling the ribs downward. **Abdominal muscles** are also contracting.
306
What allows air to move?
Boyle's law
307
Code to remember where O2 and CO2 are lowest/highest in external and internal respiration.
EPC BA
EPO AB
EFC AB
EFO BA
IPC TB
IPO BT
IFC BT
IFO TB
308
Carbon Monoxide
The CO2 competes for oxygen spots on hemoglobin which can lead to death
309
CO2 TRANSPORT:
CO2 is carried in 3 different ways:
1. _________ CO2: 7% is ________ in _____. When it reaches the lungs, it diffuses into the alveoli.
2. 23% _______ with the _______ in Hb. Since this occurs on a different binding site than oxygen, there is no competition, as seen with CO.
3. 70% of CO2 from the cells is transferred as a _________ ______ in the plasma. Most CO2 entering the plasma (internal respiration) will quickly enter the RBC’s. Chemical reactions occur that will allow the CO2 to be transported as a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) in the plasma.
CO2 TRANSPORT:
CO2 is carried in 3 different ways:
1. **Dissolved CO2**: 7% is **dissolved in plasma**. When it reaches the lungs, it diffuses into the alveoli.
2. 23% **combines with the globin** in Hb. Since this occurs on a different binding site than oxygen, there is no competition, as seen with CO.
3. 70% of CO2 from the cells is transferred as a **BICARBONATE ION** in the plasma. Most CO2 entering the plasma (internal respiration) will quickly enter the RBC’s. Chemical reactions occur that will allow the CO2 to be transported as a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) in the plasma.
310
How is the majority of Co2 carried?
Transferred as a bicarbonate ion
311
What is the main stimulus that tells the body to breathe?
CO2
312
Oxygen does not dissolve well in water, therefore only 1.5% of O2 is _______ in the _______. 98.5% is ______ on _________ of the RBCs. It is transported as _________
Oxygen does not dissolve well in water, therefore only 1.5% of O2 is dissolved in the plasma. 98.5% is carried on HEMOGLOBIN (Hb) of the RBCs. It is transported as OXYHEMOGLOBIN.
313
The larynx is the
voice box
314
List and describe the structures of the larynx
- Thyroid cartilage: adams apple
- Cricoid cartilage: landmark, trachea right below
- Arytenoid cartilage: location of vocal folds, protective over airway
- Epiglottis:
- Vocal cords
315
Superior vocal fold (AKA _______ _____ _____) is responsible for
False vocal cords- protection
316
Inferior vocal fold (AKA ______ _____ ____) is responsible for
True vocal cords- voice
317
Bronchi pathway
primary bronchi -> secondary bronchi -> tertiary bronchi -> bronchioles -> terminal bronchioles -> respiratory bronchioles
318
As the bronchial tree divides more and more, the hyaline cartilage that is found at the beginning of the structure is replaced by ______ ______.
smooth muscle
319
Terminal bronchioles represent the
end of the cartilage
320
Lungs: from the respiratory bronchioles, it goes into the
alveolar duct -> alveolar sac -> alveolus
321
Tidal volume
one inhalation, one exhalation
322
This movement of 2 different respiratory gases follows _____ _____: Each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure as if all other gases were not present.
The pressure of a specific gas in a mixture is called its ______ _____ and is noted by
pO2 and pCO2.
These partial pressure differences are important in understanding what occurs during ________ _______ and ________ ______, the second and third steps in respiration.
This movement of 2 different respiratory gases follows DALTON’s LAW: Each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure as if all other gases were not present.
The pressure of a specific gas in a mixture is called its PARTIAL PRESSURE and is noted by
pO2 and pCO2.
These partial pressure differences are important in understanding what occurs during EXTERNAL RESPIRATION and INTERNAL RESPIRATION, the second and third steps in respiration.
323
External Respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between air in the
alveoli and blood (in the capillaries)
324
Internal respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between the
blood and cells/tissue
325
aspirin, t-PA, and nitroglycerin..
relax the blood vessels
326
What organic molecules get digested in the mouth?
Carbs
327
What organic molecules get digested in the stomach?
Protein
328
What organic molecules get digested in the pancreas?
Carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
329
What organic molecules get digested in the liver?
Lipids
330
What organic molecules get digested in the small intestine?
Carbs, proteins, nucleic acids
331
What organic molecules get digested in the large intestine?
Carbs, proteins
332
Mouth: ______ ____ digests _____
Salivary amylase digests carbs
333
Stomach: _____ digests _____
Pepsin digests proteins
334
Pancreas:
- _____ _____ digests _____
- _____ _____ digests _____
- ____, _____, _______ digests _____
- ________ digest _____
- Pancreatic amylase digests carbs
- Pancreatic lipase digests lipids
- Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase digests proteins
- Nucleases digest nucleic acids
335
Liver: ____ digests ____
Bile digests lipids
336
Small intestines:
- ______ digests ________
- ______ digests _____
- ______ digest _____
- Disaccharides digests carbs
- Peptidase digests proteins
- Nucleases digest nucleic acids
337
Large intestines: ______ digests _____ and ____
E. coli digests carbs and proteins
338
SCROTUM: Cutaneous outpouching of the abdomen that supports the testes. The outer layer of the scotum includes skin a layer of fascia and a layer of smooth muscle called the ______ _____. Internally, there is a septum that divides the scrotum into 2 areas. The production and survival of _______ require a temperature that is ______ than core body temp. This temp. is regulated by the ________MUSCLE, a skeletal muscle, which elevates the testes, bringing them closer to the body when it is cold and causes the to move away from the body when warm.
SCROTUM: Cutaneous outpouching of the abdomen that supports the testes. The outer layer of the scotum includes skin a layer of fascia and a layer of smooth muscle called the **DARTOS MUSCLE**. Internally, there is a septum that divides the scrotum into 2 areas. The production and survival of **SPERMATOZOA** require a temperature that is **lower** than core body temp. This temp. is regulated by the **CREMASTER** MUSCLE, a skeletal muscle, which elevates the testes, bringing them closer to the body when it is cold and causes the to move away from the body when warm.
339
3 components of the scrotum which regulate the temp:
- Tunica dartos
- Cremaster muscle
- Pampiniform plexus
340
SEMINAL VESICLES: These paired glands lie posterior to the bladder. They secrete an ________, thick fluid that contains _______ and _________. This fluid helps to __________ the ________ _____ of the _____, which otherwise would kill the sperm.
The fructose is used by the sperm to produce ____, the energy molecule. Prostaglandins will increase sperm ______ as well as _____ _____within the female reproductive system.
SEMINAL VESICLES: These paired glands lie posterior to the bladder. They secrete an **ALKALINE**, thick fluid that contains **fructose and prostaglandins**. This fluid helps to **neutralize the acidic environment of the vagina**, which otherwise would kill the sperm.
The fructose is used by the sperm to produce **ATP**, the energy molecule. Prostaglandins will increase **sperm mobility** as well as **muscle contraction** within the female reproductive system.
341
What secretes testosterone?
Interstitial endocrinocytes
342
This process by which seminiferous tubules of the testes produce haploid sperm is called ________ It takes about 64 days.
spermatogenesis
343
A shiny white membrane called the TUNICA ALBUGINEA covers the testes. It extends into the testicle and divides it internally into lobules. The SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES lie within these lobules and it is within these tubes that the sperm will develop and mature. Composed of 2 cell types:
1
2
1. Spermatogonia
2. Sustentocytes
344
Sustentocytes have
46 chromosomes and do NOT become spermatozoa
345
TESTES: Pair of oval shaped glands found in the scrotum. These are the male gonads. They develop high on the embryo’s posterior abdominal wall and descend into the scrotum through the _______ _____ during the 7th - 8th month of gestation.
TESTES: Pair of oval shaped glands found in the scrotum. These are the male gonads. They develop high on the embryo’s posterior abdominal wall and descend into the scrotum through the **INGUINAL CANALS** during the 7th - 8th month of gestation.
346
SPERM: Sperm, the male gamete, will develop at about 300-400 million per day, and once ejaculated most will live in the female reproductive system for 48 hours. It has 3 regions:
the HEAD which contains the ______ ______ on the chromosomes as well as the ACROSOME that contains _____ _______, the MIDPIECE that contains many ________ (____ _____) and the FLAGELLUM,
or tail that is used to _____
SPERM: Sperm, the male gamete, will develop at about 300-400 million per day, and once ejaculated most will live in the female reproductive system for 48 hours. It has 3 regions:
the HEAD which contains the **genetic material** on the chromosomes as well as the ACROSOME that contains **digestive enzymes**, the MIDPIECE that contains many **mitochondria (ATP source)** and the FLAGELLUM, or tail that is used to **move**
347
Spermatozoa
- Develops from spermatogonia- takes **2 months**
- Has 23 chromosomes
348
Movement of spermatozoa/ route of the sperm
seminiferous tubules -> epididymis -> vas deferens -> ejaculatory ducts -> prostatic urethra -> membranous urethra -> spongy urethra
349
ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS (male): __________________
__________________________
These are the structures that secrete most of the liquid of the ______
ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS: **seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands**
These are the structures that secrete most of the liquid of the **semen**
350
Fructose is found in the secretion of what gland?
Seminal vesicles
351
The testis descends through this opening on its way to the scrotum
The inguinal canal
352
Nitric oxide has what effect?
Activates guanylate cyclase
353
The prostatic urethra makes up ___ of semen volume. It also has ________ which keeps the _____ ____, ultimately improving the success of _________
The prostatic urethra makes up **30%** of semen volume. It also has **agglutination** which keeps the **sperm together**, ultimately improving the success of **fertilization**
354
Function of the bulbourethral glands/cowper's glands
lubrication
355
Describe the events leading to an erection:
1. The brain sends an action potential down the ______ _____ 2 things happen:
2. _______ comes in, ________ gets released and attaches to receptors. This activates the *________ which relaxes the tunica media.
3. In addition, Nitric oxide is synthesized and crosses the synapse, activating _______ ______. This converts ______ into _____
4. cGMP also leads to a relaxation of the tunica media, which leads to a _____________________, allowing the corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum to be filled.
1. The brain sends an action potential down the **pudendal nerve** 2 things happen:
2. **Calcium** comes in, **acetylcholine** gets released and attaches to receptors. This activates the **G protein** which relaxes the tunica media.
3. In addition, Nitric oxide is synthesized and crosses the synapse, activating **guanylate cyclase. This converts GTP into cGMP**.
4. cGMP also leads to a relaxation of the tunica media, which leads to a **vasodilation of the artery and compression of the vein**, allowing the corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum to be filled.
356
Overview of ovarian function (1)
1. Females are born with ______ _______ (___ chromosomes) already within the ovaries. Thes primordial follicles that are found in each ovary will not develop any further until puberty, when there is a large increase in female hormones, specifically ____.
2. Each month, several primordial follicles will develop into ______FOLLICLES. Most of these primary follicles will eventually undergo ______ (degeneration). However, a few primary follicles become SECONDARY FOLLICLES. Usually ____ secondary follicle develops into a GRAAFIAN (Antral) FOLLICLE. This Graafian follicle will rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte which will do final maturation once fertilized into the Fallopian tube. This is termed _______
3. The ruptured follicle that remains within the ovary will collapse, secrete hormones (estrogens and progesterone) and will be called a **CORPUS LUTEUM**. The corpus luteum is functional due to the production of Progesterone.
4. Finally, at the end of the monthly cycle, the corpus luteum will become scar tissue called a **CORPUS ALBICANS**. The surface of the ovaries of older women will not be smooth, but scarred and pitted.
1. Females are born with **PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLES** (**46** chromosomes) already within the ovaries. Thes primordial follicles that are found in each ovary will not develop any further until puberty, when there is a large increase in female hormones, specifically **FSH**.
2. Each month, several primordial follicles will develop into **PRIMARY FOLLICLES**. Most of these primary follicles will eventually undergo **ATRESIA** (degeneration). However, a few primary follicles become SECONDARY FOLLICLES. Usually **one** secondary follicle develops into a GRAAFIAN (Antral) FOLLICLE. This Graafian follicle will rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte which will do final maturation once fertilized into the Fallopian tube. This is termed **OVULATION**.
357
4 stages of the female reproductive cycle & how long each lasts:
Menstruation, days 1-5
Preovulatory phase, days 6-13
Ovulation, day 14
Post-Ovulatory Phase, day 15-28
358
Menstruation:
- Uterus
- Ovary
- Hormones
- Uterus: Stratum functionalis decreases in thickness
- Ovary: Primordial follicles become primary follicles
- Hormones: FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone are all at low levels
359
Preovulatory phase:
- Uterus
- Ovary
- Hormones
- Uterus: Stratum functionalis increases in thickness
- Ovary: Primary follicles become secondary follicles which become a graafian follicle
- Hormones: FSH and estrogen increase while LH and progesterone remain low
360
Ovulation:
- Uterus
- Ovary
- Hormones
- Uterus: Stratum functionalis continues to thicken
- Ovary: Graafian follicle becomes corpus luteum
- Hormones: FSH, LH, and estrogen are at their peak while progesterone remains low
361
Post-Ovulatory Phase:
- Uterus
- Ovary
- Hormones
- Uterus: Stratum functionalis continues to increase in thickness
- Ovary: Corpus luteum present
- Hormones: FSH, LH, and estrogen decrease while progesterone increases
362
Mechanical and Behavioral categories of BC prevent..
fertilization
363
Hormonal categories of BC prevent..
ovulation
364
The fallopian tubes are the
- site of fertilization
- site of sterilization
- location of ectopic (abnormal) pregnancy
365
When is implantation?
day 23
366
When is fertilization?
day 15
367
Monozygotic twins:
This occurs when __ oocyte is fertilized by __ sperm, but during development 2 areas of the inner cell mass develop _______. Or there is a separation of _______ into 2 groups of cells. This results in 2 genetically identical individuals. Both must be either be male or female.
This occurs when **1 oocyte** is fertilized by **1 sperm**, but during development 2 areas of the inner cell mass develop **individually**. Or there is a separation of **blastomeres** into 2 groups of cells. This results in 2 genetically identical individuals. Both must be either be male or female.
368
Dizygotic twins are
2 separate oocytes that both get fertilized from different spermatozoa
369
What is each germ layer and what does each develop into in the fetus?
Ectoderm- skin, nervous system
Mesoderm- muscle, bone, CT
Endoderm- internal organs
370
Most common lethal genetic disease
Cystic fibrosis
371
What hormone begins the process of parturition/labor?
adrenal (cortisol)
372
Capacitation
weakening of the sperm/acrosome membrane
373
Acrosomal reaction: The sperm will surround the ovulated oocyte in the female and ______ _______from their acrosomes
release enzymes
374
Name of the delivery/action of giving birth
Parturition
375
Zygote –>
Zygote –> Morula –> Blastocyst –> Embryoblast –> Trophoblast –> Blastocoele
376
What stage enters the uterus?
Blastocyst
377
Embryoblast is where the
fetus comes from
378
Trophoblast is where the
placenta comes from
379
Color blindness: the ability to see color is dependent upon the
X
380
Cretinism
T4
381
The circumflex artery branches off the
left coronary artery
382
T/F Left sided heart failure will lead to fluid in the lungs
True
383
An embolus usually gets stuck where?
The brain and lungs
384
The amount of blood leaving the left ventricle per minute is the
Cardiac Output
385
Why does an imbalance in blood calcium affect cardiac muscle more than skeletal muscle?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is smaller in cardiac muscle
386
How long does it take for clot retraction to occur?
An hour
387
Liver makes clotting factors with
vitamin K
388
What is true of dilated cardiomyopathy?
Preload is good
389
When blood drains from rib 2 on the right, which vessel will be immediately next after the intercostal vein?
Azygos vein
390
What vessel is affected most by vasoconstriction?
arteriole
391
The vessel used in heart bypass surgery treatment
great saphenous vein
392
When traveling away from the heart on the descending aorta, what vessel will be encountered immediately after the superior mesenteric artery?
Renal artery
393
T/F The umbilical artery contains deoxygenated blood
True
394
A person in circulatory shock will have:
fever
395
3 tunicas, slow velocity, no elastic fibers, and a large diameter best describes:
veins
396
The median cubital vein connects
the cephalic with the basilic
397
Which does not recieve blood from the celiac artery?
Jejunum
Stomach
Liver
Spleen
Jejunum
398
Basal metabolic rate is the energy needed to
keep vital organs functioning
399
Longest portion of the ailementary tract
small intestine
400
Location of ADH effecr
Collecting duct
401
Location of tubular secretion
PCT
402
What method of transport occurs on the basal surface for glucose?
facilitated diffusion
403
Method by which sodium crosses the apical surface of the PCT
cotransport
404
Water absorption from the DCT enters the
vasa recta
405
Gastrocolic reflex is an example of
mass movement
406
What is true of ADH:
Increases Na permeability
Lowers blood glucose
Increases BP
Produced by atrium of the heart
Increases BP
407
In tubular secretion, the method of transport for H+ on the apical surface is
countertransport
408
If after a car accident, you had to have a kidney removed, what'd happen to your urine production in 2 months?
No change
409
What gland is associated with the ejaculatory duct?
Seminal vesicle
410
T/F Spermatogonia have a haploid # of chromosomes
False
411
Is the pCO2 in the pulmonary vein high or low?
Low
