Final EXAM Flashcards
(104 cards)
1
Q
Ch 25: Age of Earth
A
Formation of Earth: over 4.6 billion years ago (bya)
2
Q
Ch 25: Hypothesis for how life emerged = 4 steps
A
- Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
- Joining of small molecules into macromolecules
- Packaging of macromolecules into protocells
- Origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible
3
Q
Ch 25: Origin of Eukaryotes = Endosymbiont Theory
A
Endosymbiont = cell that lives w/in another cell (host cells)
Evidence support endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria & plastids.
- Inner membranes have enzymes & transport systems homologous in living prokaryotes
- Own Circular DNA
- Replication similar to prokaryotes
- Machinery for protein synthesis
- Ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic ribosomes
4
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
What Eon held the first single-celled organisms?
Earth’s sole inhabitants than how many years?
Oxygen levels increase or decrease?
A
Archaean Eon
More than 1.5 billion years
Oxygen levels Increase
5
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
What eon hold the first eukaryotic cells?
How many years?
A
Proterozoic Eon
~ 1.8 billion years
6
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
When was the Colonization of Land and the era?
A
~ 500 million years ago (mya)
Paleozoic Era
7
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
What era is the Age of Reptiles (“Age of the Dinosaurs”)?
What plant is dominant?
A
Mesozoic Era
cone-bearing plant
8
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
What era is the Age of Mammals?
What is the full human geologic record?
A
Cenozoic Era
Human:
Phanerozoic Eon, Cenozoic Era, Quaternary Period, Holocene Epoch
9
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
How many Mass Extinctions were there?
What are their names?
A
The Big Five
- Ordovician-silurian Mass Extinction
- Late Devonian
- Permian Extinction
- Triassic-Jurassic
- Cretaceous Extinction (K-T Extinction)
10
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
Ordovician-Silurian Mass Extinction
What year?
What became extinct?
A
455-430 MYA
Life: aquatic
Trilobites and early mollusks were drastically reduced in #
11
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
Late Devonian
What year?
What became extinct?
A
359 MYA
75% species died out
life in shallow seas affected more than other life forms
12
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
Permian Extinction
What is another name called?
What year?
What became extinct?
What happened?
A
“The Great Dying”
251 MYA
~ 96% of marine animal species drastically altered life in ocean
- extreme episode of volcanism
Produce enough CO2 to warm global climate
Oceans became more acidic
13
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
Triassic-Jurassic Mass Extinction
What year?
What caused?
What became extinct?
A
= 200 MYA
= 2-3 phases combined
= Likely causes by climate change, flood basalt eruptions, asteroid impact
= ~50% of all species became extinct
(Many species of plants survived)
(marine reptiles, some large amphibians, reef-building creatures & large # of cephalopod mollusks affected)
14
Q
Ch 25: General Trends in the Evolution of Life on Earth
Cretaceous Extinction
What is another name?
What year?
What became extinct?
Where was it?
A
” K-T Extinction”
65 MYA
- Extinguished more than half of all marine species
- Eliminated many families of terrestrial plants & animals, including ALL dinosaurs
North America, Yucatan Peninsula, Chicxulub Crater
15
Q
Ch 26: Proper format of a scientific name
A
First Part= Genus (capitilized)
Second Part = species (lowercase)
Written => underline
Type => italized
16
Q
Ch 26: Phylogenies
Their uses [3]
A
- Show patterns of descent, NOT phenotypic similarity
- Sequence of branching in a tree does not necessarily indicate actual AGES of the particular species
IF AGES=> MOLECULAR CLOCK
- We shouldn’t assume that a taxon on a phylogenetic tree evolved from the taxon next to it
17
Q
Ch 26: Phylogenies
Their uses in inferring phylogenies [4]
A
- Morphological Characters
- DNA sequences
- Microsatellites (repeats)
- Mobile elements
18
Q
Ch 26: Order of the hierarchy of classification
A
Dear => Domain [Broadest]
King => Kingdom
Philip => Phylum
Came => Class
Over => Order
For => Family
Grape => Genus
Soda => Species [Most Specific]
19
Q
Ch 26: Homologous vs Analogous characters
Types of each & how to distinguish b/w both
A
Homologous Characters: phenotypic & genetic similarities due to shared ancestry
Analogous Characters: similarities due to convergent evolution (not share common ancestor)
Distinguish b/w: Corroborative similarities
- # and intensity of similarities increase the more closely related two species
20
Q
Ch 27: Reasons for prokaryote success [6]
A
- Many tolerate extreme conditions
- High Salinity (High salt conc)
- Radiation
- Low pH
- Extreme Temp (hot/cold)
- in rocks below earth’s surface
21
Q
Ch 27: Unique characteristics of bacteria
A
- lack of membrane bound organelles
- unicellular
- microscopic size
22
Q
Ch 27: Unique characteristics of bacteria
How Gram staining helps us identify bacteria?
A
Knows the large or thin layer of peptidoglycan
Stain Purple
- Gram (+) bacteria
- Large amount of peptidoglycan
- inhibit peptidoglycan cross-linking
- attack bacterial cells w/o harming human cells
Stain Pink
- Gram (-) bacteria
- Thin layer of peptidoglycan
- Outer membrane: lipopolysaccharides (lipid portions toxic)
- more resistant to antibiotics
23
Q
Ch 27: Reproduction of Prokaryotes [2]
A
Reproduced by binary fission (asexual)
- very short generation times
24
Q
Ch 27: Reproduction
High level of Genetic Diversity (3 things)
A
Rapid Reproduction, Mutations, Genetic Recombination
25
Ch 27: Genetic Recombination (3 mechanisms)
- Transformation
=(genotype & phenotype altered by uptake of foreign DNA)
= Cell Recombinant (chromosome contains DNA derived from two diff cells)
= Cell surface proteins recognize foreign DNA from a closely related species and transport it into cell
- Transduction
= use bacteriophages (require help) to carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another
= Chop up, Assemble, Phages carry donor genes, Recipient bacterium, Crossing Over Homologous, Transduced bacterium
- Conjugation
= DNA is transferred b/w 2 prokaryotic cells (usually same species) that are temporarily joined [1 donor, 1 recipient]
26
Ch 27: Nutritional & Metabolic Adaptations (4)
- Phototrophs: drive energy from light
- Chemotrophs: obtain energy from chemicals
- Autotrophs: need only CO2 or inorganic cmpds as carbon source (photosynthetic)
- Heterotrophs: require @ least one organic nutrient (glucose)
27
Ch 27: Nutritional and Metabolic Adaptations
Role of Oxygen in Metabolism (3)
- Obligate aerobes: MUST USE O2 for cellular respiration & CANNOT grow w/o it
- Obligate anaerobes: POISONED by O2 and some live by FERMENTATION, some extract chemical energy by ANEAROBIC RESPIRATION
- Facultative Anaerobes: USE O2 if it is present but can also carry FERMENTATION OR ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
28
Ch 27: Nutritional and Metabolic Adaptations
Nitrogen (2)
- Nitrogen Metabolism: essential for production of AA and Nucleic Acids, prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in many forms
- Nitrogen Fixation: some cyanobacteria can covert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia
29
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists
Supergroup Excavata
Kingdom Euglenozoa (2 groups)
- Kinetoplastids: single large mitochondrion that contains mass of DNA (kinetoplast)
- Euglenid: pocket at one end of cell from which 1 or 2 flagella emerge
BOTH features are RODS with spiral or crystalline structure inside of each of their FLAGELLA
30
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists
Supergroup Excavata
Kingdom Euglenozoa (2 groups)
- Kinetoplastids: single large mitochondrion that contains mass of DNA (kinetoplast)
- Euglenid: pocket at one end of cell from which 1 or 2 flagella emerge
BOTH features are RODS with spiral or crystalline structure inside of each of their FLAGELLA
31
Ch 28: Relationship to other groups such as plants & animals
Supergroup Excavata
Kingdom Euglenozoa (2 groups)
feed and causes
Kinetoplastids
- feed on prokaryotes in freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial environments
- cause African sleeping sickness & Chaga's disease
Euglenid
- flagella
- mixotrophs (photoautotrophic & heterotrophic nutrition)
32
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists
Supergroup SAR
Kingdom Stramenopila (4 groups)
Stramenopiles
- refer to "hairy" flagellum
- strawmen= straw, pilos= hair
Diatoms
- unicellular algae (stained glass, glass like walls made up of silicon dioxide)
Golden Algae
- cells biflagellated (2 flagella)
- all photosynthetic
- most unicellular, some colonial
Brown Algae
- larges and most complex algae
- multicellular, marine
- seaweeds
33
Ch 28: Relationships to other groups (plants/animals)
Supergroup SAR
Kingdom Stramenopila (4 groups)
most importance
Stramenopiles
- most important photosynthetic organisms (producers) on plant
Diatoms
- most abundant photosynthetic organisms [ocean/lake] [plankton= food source]
Golden Algae
- components of freshwater & marine plankton
- many can form protective cysts that can survive for decades
- all photosynthetic
- most unicellular, some colonial
Brown Algae
- all multicellular; most marine
- seaweeds
- tissues and organs
- blade = "leaves"
- stipe = support blades
- holdfast = attachment
34
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists
Supergroup SAR
Kingdom Alveolata (2 groups)
BOTH posses membrane enclosed sacs (alveoli)
Dinoflagellates
- Cellulose plates
Ciliates
- use cilia to move and feed [heterotrophic]
35
Ch 28: Relationships to other groups (plants/animals)
Supergroup SAR
Kingdom Alveolata (2 groups)
structure and importance
Dinoflagellates
- two flagella located in grooves to make them spin as they move thru water
- ceratium [little rocket ships]
Ciliates
- most are predators of bacteria/ small protists
- 2 nuclei: miconucleus (exchanged during conjugation) & macronucleus
36
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists
Supergroup SAR
Kingdom Rhizarians (2 groups)
Radiolarians
- possess delicate, intricately SYMMETRICAL internal skeletons made of SILICA
Foraminiferans (Forams)
- possess porous shells called tests, made of CALCIUM CARBONATE
- UNSYMMETRICAL
37
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists & relationships to other groups (plants/animals)
Supergroup SAR
Kingdom Rhodophyta (1 group)
Rose-colored
Red Algae
- most abundant large algae in the warm coastal waters of tropical waters
- most multicellular
- seaweeds
38
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists
Supergroup Archaeplastida
Kingdom Chlorophyta (1 group)
Green algae
Green algae
- structure and pigment composition is similar to chloroplasts of land plants
- desmias: rods
- volvox: one ball w/ multiple balls inside
- ulva: sea lettuce
39
Ch 28: Characteristics of identified groups of protists & relationships to other groups (plants/animals)
Supergroup Unikonta
Kingdom Amoebozoa (1 group)
Amoebas
- move and feed by extensions of bulge from cell surface called pseudopodia ( false foot)
- irregularly shaped
- heterotrophic
- reproduce by budding
40
Ch 31: Unique characteristics of fungi [6]
- fungi are NOT plants
- break down organic material & recycle nutrients
- multicellular filaments
- single cells (yeasts)
- hyphae: network of tiny filaments
- chitin: cell walls strengthen
41
Ch 31: Unique characteristics of fungi
What are lichens? [3 types]
lichens= beneficial symbiotic associations
Crustose lichens = crusts that strongly adhere to substrate making separation impossible
Foliose lichens = flattened leafy thalli
Fruticose lichens = shrubby/bushy appearance. Structure consists of thallus and holdfast
42
Ch 31: Mode of nutrition [fungi: 4 types]
Heterotrophs
- absorb nutrients in environ
- secrete hydrolytic enzymes (break down cmplx molec into smaller organic cmpds that can be absorb to their bodies
Decomposers: break down and absorb nutrients from NONLIVING ORGANIC MATERIAL
- fallen logs, animals corpses, waste
Parasitic fungi: absorb nutrients from cells of living hosts
- result: death of host, fungus takes over
- "zombies"
Mutualistic fungi: absorb nutrients from host, both host & fungi benefit
- interactions: roots
- mycorrhizae w/ fungi
43
Ch 31: fungi [iPad: Lecture 5_Fungi]
Be sure to ans Q's about reproductive cycles of different groups of fungi
Conidia = asexual spores
Mycellium reproduction (asexual/sexual)
Basidiocarps: mushrooms: sexual
44
Ch 29/30: Adaptations that facilitated the colonization of land [5]
1) Alternation of Generations
2) Multicellular, Dependent Embryos
3) Walled spores produced in sporangia
4) Multicellular Gametangia
5) Apical Meristems
45
Ch 29/30: Alternation of Generations [def]
Alternate b/w multicellular haploid (n) gametophyte & multicellular diploid (2n) sporophyte
46
Ch 29/30: Nonvascular vs Vascular Plants
Unique Characters
Nonvascular
- Bryophytes: liverworts, mosses, hornworts
Vascular
- Seedless: lycophytes (club mosses & relatives); monilophytes (ferns & relatives)
- Seeded: gymnosperms (naked seed); angiosperms (flowering plants)
47
Ch 29/30: Nonvascular vs Vascular Plants
Diff in reproductive cycle
Nonvascular: GAMETOPHTE is dominant stage
Vascular: SPOROPHYTES is dominant stage
48
Ch 29/30: Nonvascular vs Vascular Plants
Structure & Function of Vascular tissues [2]
Xylem: conducts most of water and minerals
- water conducing cells strengthened by lignin (helps plants grow taller)
Phloem: cell arranged into tubes to distribute sugar, AA, & other organic products
49
Ch 29/30: Nonvascular vs Vascular Plants
Unique Characters (Phylums in nonvascular)
Nonvascular:
- Phylum Hepatophyta = liverworts
- Phylum Bryophta = mosses
- Phylum Anthocerophyta = hornworts
50
Ch 29/30: Nonvascular vs Vascular Plants
Monocots vs Eudicots
Monocots
- Embryos: ONE cotyledon
- Leaf Venation: VEINS PARALLEL
- Stems: tissue SCATTERED
- Roots: FIBRIOUS (no main root)
- Pollen: ONE OPENING
- Flowers: MULTIPLES OF 3
Eudicots
- Embryos: TWO cotyledon
- Leaf Venation: VEINS NETLIKE
- Stems: tissue RING /ordered
- Roots: TAPROOT (main root)
- Pollen: 3 OPENINGS
- Flowers: MULTIPLES OF 4 OR 5
51
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs [3]
- Roots
- Stems
- Leaves
stems and leaves are both SHOOT systems
52
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs [3]
Detailed
Roots: anchor vascular plant in soil, absorb nutrients + water, store carbs + other reserves
Stems: elongate + orient shoot in way to max photosynthesis; elevate reproductive structures
Leaf: main photosynthetic organ in vascular plants; gas exchange, dissipate heat, defend plant against herbivores + pathogens
- Blade: flattened portion of leaf
- Petiole: stalk that joins the leaf to stem at a node
53
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs
Types of Roots [2]
Pros and Cons
Taproot: tall, erect plants w/ large shoot masses
- Pros: allows plants to grow taller; access to more favorable light conditions, advantage for pollen and seed dispersal, specialize for food storage
- Cons: Energetically expensive; absorption restricted largely to lateral roots
Fibrous: small plants or those with trailing growth habit
- Pros: more efficient anchoring system for plants that are susceptible to grazing animals
- Cons: primary root dies early on & doesn't form taproot (small roots emerge from stem)
54
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs
Types of roots
Evolutionary Adaptations [5]
- Prop Roots: support tall, top heavy plants
- Storage roots: stores food & water
- Pneumatophores: "air roots", can obtain oxygen during low tide
- Buttress roots: support to trunks in moist tropic conditions; shallow
- "Strangling" aerial roots: grow to ground, wrapping around host tree; shoots grow upwards and shade out the host tree
55
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs
Stems
Structures [4]
Structure
- Nodes: points where leaves attach
- Internodes: stem segment b/w nodes
- Apical bud: growing shoot tip (also called terminal bud)
- Axillary bud: form lateral branch, thorn, or flower; found b/w epigeal (where leaf attaches) + stem
56
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs
Stems
Evolutionary Adaptations [3]
- Rhizomes: horizontal roots that grow below surface
- Tubers: large ends of rhizomes or stolont that specialize for food storage
- Stolons: Horiz roots that grows above the surface
57
Ch 35: Structure & Function of plant organs
Types of Leaves [2]
- Simple Leaves: single undivided blade
- Compound leaves: multiple leaflets
58
Ch 35: Flowers: structure and function
[2 types]
- Complete (perfect) flower: all 4 organs (sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels/pistil)
- Incomplete (imperfect) flower: lack one or more organs
= Pistillate (or Carpellate) flower: only female reproductive structures
= Staminate Flower: only male reproductive structures
59
Ch 35: Tissue Types [3]
- Dermal
- Vascular
- Ground Tissue
60
Ch 35: Tissue Types [3]
Dermal: Structure, function, and location
- Plant's outer protective covering (first line of defense against physical damage and pathogens)
- nonwoody plants: single tissue = EPIDERMIS
- leaves and most stems: waxy CUTICLE prevents water loss
- woody plants: protective tissues replace the epidermis in older regions of stem = PERIDERM
61
Ch 35: Tissue Types [3]
Vascular: Structure, function, and location
Function: facilitates TRANSPORT of materials THRU plants and provides mechanical support.
- Xylem: conducts H2O & dissolved minerals upward from roots into shoots
- Phloem: Transport sugars, products of photosynthesis from what they needed [usually roots & sites of growth]
- Stele: vascular tissue of root or stem
62
Ch 35: Tissue Types [3]
Ground Tissue: Structure, function, and location
Function: specialized cells for storage, photosynthesis, support, and short distance transport
- Pith: internal vascular tissue
- Cortex: external vascular tissue
63
Ch 35: Primary vs Secondary Growth
Primary: in nonwoody plants, the entire plant is primary growth
[Apical Meristems]
Secondary: undergo 2nd growth but rare in monocots
INCREASES diameter of stems & roots, rarely in leaves
[Lateral Meristems]
Look at chart on Lecture 8_Plant Structure & Growth on last slide
64
Ch 38: Alternation of Generations
Go thru the step of Angiosperm reproduction
- Gametophyte development: Sporophyte dominant
- Double fertilization
- Seed development & germination
Go to Lecture 9 Angiosperm Reproduction
65
Ch 38: Types of Fruits and Function of Fruits
- Simple Fruit: Develops from single carpel
- Aggregate Fruit: Develops from multiple carpels of 1 flower
- Multiple fruit: Develops from many carpels of many flowers
- Accessory fruit: Develops from tissues other than ovary
66
Ch 32: Characteristics of animals [5]
- Multicellular eukaryotes
- Heterotrophic nutrition
- Tissues develop from embryonic layers
- Cells supported by structural proteins than cell walls
- Nervous tissue & Muscle tissue are unique, defining characteristics of animals
67
Ch 32: Characteristics of animals
Trends in animal evolution [6]
Simple ---------------> complex
Asymmetry -----> Radial -----> bilateral
sessile (attach to substrate & will not move) -> gentle stirrings/swim ----> Run, jump, walk...
Filter feeders ( nutrition) ----> herbivory, scavengar, detritivores ----> predatory
68
Ch 32: Animal Body Plans
Symmetry [3]
- Asymmetry: animals CANNOT be divided into similar halves (sponges)
- Radial Symmetry: arrangement of parts around single main axis (no true head, only 2 tissue layers) (oral= mouth, aboral)
- Bilateral Symmetry: arrangement that can divided into 2 equal halves (anterior= front, ventral= stomach, dorsal= back, posterior= back/rear end)
69
Ch 32: Animal Body Plans
Tissues [3]
Diploblastic (2 embry tissue layers= endo and ecto)
Triploblastic (3 embryonic tissue= endo, ecto, meso)
- Ectoderm: rise to OUTER covering of animals and some phyla, the central nervous system
- Endoderm: Rise to digestive tract and organs of vertebrates (INNER covering)
- Mesoderm: forms MUSCLES and most organs b/w digestive tract & OUTER covering of animal
70
Ch 32: Animal Body Plans
Body Cavities [3]
- Coelomates: posses TRUE COELOM from mesoderm
= have mesenteries, inner & outer tissues surround cavity connect and form structure that suspend internal organs
- Pseudocoelomates: posses PSEUDOCOELOEM formed from mesoderm & endoderm (organs lie freely w/in cavity) FALSE= pseudo
- Acoelomates: lack body cavity (organs encased w/in body tissues)
71
Ch 32: Animal Body Plans
Type of Development [2]
Pro: first opening of mouth
Deutero: 1st opening= anus, 2nd opening= mouth
Protostome:
- Cleavage: 8-cell stage = spiral & determinate (offset)
- Coelom formation: solid masses of mesoderm SPLIT and form coelom
- Fate of Blastopore: mouth develops from blastopore
(Anus= Top, Mouth= Bottom)
Deuterostome:
- Cleavage: 8-cell stage = radial & indeterminate (line up)
- Coelom formation: folds of ARCHENTERON (gastrulation) from coelom
- Fate of Blastopore: Anus develops from blastopore
(Mouth= Top, Anus= Bottom)
72
Ch 38: General Understanding of phylogenetic relationship w/in the group
look at slide 39 in Lecture 10_intro to animal diversity [exam 3]
73
Ch 34: Four characteristics shared by all chordates
- Notochord: provides support [jawless], reduces & forms parts of gelatinous disks b/w vertebrae in humans
- Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Tube
- Pharyngeal slits/ Clefts
- Post Anal Tail
74
Ch 34: Unique characteristics of vertebrate phyla [2]
- Two or more sets of Hox genes (genes that control patterns of embryonic development)
- Development of skull and backbone
75
Ch 34: Unique characteristic of vertebrate phyla
Evolution of jaws
Jaws were involved with modification of anterior - most pair of pharyngeal slits
- accumulation of mutations
- remaining gill slits were modified into respiratory structures
76
Ch 34: Transition into terrestrial habitats
Evolution of Terrestrialism:
Fossils of Tiktaalik possessed many tetrapod characters
- first sarcoptergyian fossil to show evidence of pectoral girdle & freely moveable neck
77
Ch 40: Exchanges w/ environment [5]
- Exchanges occurs as substances dissolved in an aqueous solution move across plasma membrane of a cell
= Rate of exchange & amount of material is proportional
- Complex organism: increase # of cells, decrease ration of S.A. to total volume
- Evol Adaptations include surfaces with branched or folded
- Interstitial fluid: fills spaces b/w cells
- Circulatory fluid: exchange b/w interstitial & circulatory fluids is essential for life
78
Ch 40: Organization of body plans [11]
Organs system -> Main components -> Main functions
Digestive system --> Mouth, Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus --> Food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
Circulatory system --> heart, blood vessels, blood --> internal distribution of materials
Respiratory system --> lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes --> Gas Exchange (uptake O2; disposal of CO2)
Immune & Lymphatic --> bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels --> body defense (fighting infections & cancer)
Excretory --> Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra --> disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
Endocrine --> Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, & other hormone-secreting glands --> Coordination of body activities (digestion & metabolism
Reproductive --> Ovaries or testes & associated organs --> reproduction
Nervous --> Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs --> coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli & formulation of responses to them
Integumentary --> Skin & derivatives (hair, claws, skin glands) --> protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
Skeletal --> skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage) --> body support, protection of internal organs, movement
Muscular --> skeletal muscles --> locomotion & other movement
79
Ch 40: Tissue Types [4]
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nervous tissue
80
Ch 40: Tissue Types [4]
Epithelial tissue: Location & Function
- Location: Selectively Permeable (Kidneys, small intestine, glands, endocrine, exocrine)
- Function: protects deep layers of tissue from injury or infection
Extra Info:
- Proper: covers & line w/ outer & inner body
- Grandular: forms glands & secretes hormone & other substances
- squamous: flat, easier for O2 to move
- Cuboidal
- columnar
- Simple layer: one layer
- Stratified: multiple layers on top of each other; stacked
- pseudostratified: one layer w/ diff shapes and sizes
81
Ch 40: Tissue Types [4]
Nervous tissue: Location & Function
- Location: Nervous system
- Function: Control & communicate
Extra info:
- axon: carries messages to other neurons
- cell body: nucleus & mitochondria
- dentrites: collect signals (tree-like branches)
82
Ch 40: Tissue Types [4]
Muscle tissue: Location & Function
- Function: Movement (contract & move)
Location: Deals w/ 3 types
- Skeletal: long straight cells, obvious striations, multiple nuclei, [attach bones] voluntary
- Cardiac: Striated, one nucleus, branching structures, interculated disks, involuntary [heart]
- Smooth: uninucleate, packed 2gether, no striated, [blood vessels, hollow system (uterus)], involuntary
83
Ch 40: Tissue Types [4]
Connective Tissue: Location & Function
- Function: Bind support & protect your organs & gives skeleton to move w/ purpose
- Location: Proper, Cartilage, bone, blood
Extra info: Fibers
- collagen: strangest and most abundant
- elastic: form a branching framework, thinner, stretch & coil like rubber bands
- reticular: short finer collagen fibers, sponges like networks
Cells:
- immature= blast
- mature= cyte
84
Ch 40: Homeostasis & Feedback control
Homeostasis [4]
- Regulators: INTERNAL mechanisms to control internal changes in face of EXTERNAL fluctuation
- Conformers: allow internal conditions to change in accordance w/ EXTERNAL changes in variable (match environ)
- Homeostasis: maintenance of internal balance
- Maintain set point by STIMULUS detected by SENSOR
85
Ch 40: Homeostasis & Feedback control
Feedback control in Homeostasis [2]
- Neg feedback: reduce/ counteracts the stimulus
- Pos feedback: amplifies the stimulus
86
Ch 41: Essential nutrients and their importance [4]
- AA: Require 20 AA to make proteins, most enzymes synthesize 1/2 of these, so remaining are obtained from food in prefabricated forms (complete: meat, eggs, cheese) (incomplete: most plant products, consume wide variety)
- Fatty Acids: synthesizing cellular components [plasma membrane]
- Vitamins: small amounts, several importances (components of coenzyme FAD [e- carrier in cellular respiration pathway]) (coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and AA)
- Mineral: small amounts, several importances (bone and tooth formation, blood clotting, nerve & muscle function) (acid-base balance, water balance, nerve function) (ATP bioenergetics) (component of thyroid hormones)
87
Ch 41: Food Processing [4]
- Ingestion: act of eating/feeding
- Digestion: food broken down into molec small enough for body to absorb
- Absorption: cells take up small molec
- Elimination: undigested materials pass out of digestive system
88
Ch 41: Food Processing
Movement thru mammalian digestive system [1]
Complete digestive tract or ALIMENTARY CANAL (2 opening)
- Oral Cavity (teeth, salivary glands, mouth)
- Food moves thru alimentary canal by Peristalsis
- Pharynx & Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- large intestine
- out in rectum
89
Ch 41: Food Processing
Structure & Function of each compartment [3]
- Intracellular Digestion: occurs in lysosomes; unicellular organisms, sponges
= allows organism to avoid self- digestion
- Extracellular Digestion: breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous w/ outside of animal's body
- Simple body plans (digestive compartment w/ single opening): Gastrovascular Cavity= function in digestion & distribution throughout the body
90
Ch 41: Food Processing
Hormonal Control of digestion [3]
- HCL (Hydrochloric acid): disrupts extracellular matrix that bind cells 2gether in meat & plant material
- Pepsin: (protease) breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides
- most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolec occurs in small intestine [most absorption]
91
Ch 42: Structure & Function of circulatory system
Structure: Heart, vessels, arteries
[circulatory fluid, interconnecting vessels, muscular pump (heart)]
Function: Gain O2 and shed CO2 and other waste products must involve every cell in the body
92
Ch 42: Structure & Function of circulatory system
Open vs Closed
Open: hemolymph (circulating fluid) and interstitial fluid bathes body cells
Closed: BLOOD is confined to vessels and is separate from interstitial fluid
93
Ch 42: Structure & Function of circulatory system
Components of blood (plasma & cellular components) [4]
Plasma: 55% in body, water used 90%
= Function: pH buffering, Defense, lipid transport
Erythroctyes: Red blood cells; Function: transport O2
Leukocytes: White blood cells; Function: Defense & Immunity
Platelets: Bone marrow; Function: Blood clottting
94
Ch 42: Structure & Function of circulatory system
Compare & Contrast Types of Vessels [3]
- Capillaries: thin & leaky, ONLY site of exchange b/w blood & interstitial fluid
- Arteries: Much thicker, move blood AWAY from heart, small lumen, connective tissue is MUCH thicker
- Vessels: LESS thick, move blood TO heart, large lumen, connective tissue is LESS thick
Arteries and Vessels look at small muscle
95
Ch 42: Structure & Function of circulatory system
How exchange occurs
During gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. At the same time carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the lungs. This happens in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are located in the walls of the alveoli.
96
Ch 42: Structure & Function of respiratory system
- Structure: Lungs, pharynx, heart, diaphragm, alveoli
- Function: uptake of O2 from environ & discharge CO2 to environ
97
Ch 42: Structure & Function of respiratory system
Types of respiratory structures in animal kingdom [3]
- Cutaneous respiration: breath thru skin
- Ventilation (gills): operculum (fish); deals with countercurrent exchange = 2 fluids flowing in opp directions (blood & water)
- Tracheal system: common; lungs
98
Ch 42: Structure & Function of respiratory system
Pathway of air thru system [3]
Pharynx --> Larynx --> Trachea
99
Ch 42: Structure & Function of respiratory system
Pathway of air thru system
What happens during inhalation vs exhalation?
Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges
Upon exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its domelike shape, and air is forced out of the lungs.
100
Ch 42: Structure & Function of respiratory system
How exchange occurs b/w this system & circulatory system?
Gas exchange occurs in alveoli
Capillaries will form an exchange to take the oxygenated blood back to the heart while it take CO2 out in the lungs
101
Ch 44: Osmoregulation: osmoregulator vs osmoconformer [2]
Osmoregulator: animal controls internal morality independent of that external environ.
- some move b/w freshwater & marine environ.
- must discharge or take on water
Osmoconformer: animal isosmotic w/ its surroundings
- Live in water w/ stable composition
- all marine animals
- no tendency to gain or lose water
102
Ch 44: Types of excretory waste produced in animal kingdom [3]
Pros & Cons of each
Ammonia (most aquatic animals, most bony fishes)
- Pro: takes very little energy
- Con: very toxic
Urea (mammals, most amphibians, sharks, some bony fishes)
- Pro: low toxicity
- Con: Requires more energy [High Energy cost]
Uric Acid (many reptiles, birds, insects, land snails)
- Pro: nontoxic, conserves most water (semisolid paste)
- Con: most energically expensive
103
Ch 44: kidney structure and function [3]
- Renal Cortex (out) & Renal Medulla (in) = tightly packed excretory tubules and associated blood vessels
- Renal Artery (in) & Renal Vein (out)
- most fluid absorbed until remaining fluid leaves as urine and is collected in inner Renal Pelvis
- Nephrons: functional units of kidney
= essential for production of urine that is HYPERosmotic (high salt conc) to body fluids
104
Ch 44: Process of Excretion [4]
- Filtration
- Reabsorption
- Secretion
- Excretion
