Final Exam Flashcards
(381 cards)
1
Q
What term denotes biological characteristics differentiating males and females?
A
Sex
2
Q
What term denotes social and cultural characteristics differentiating masculine and feminine behavior?
A
Gender
3
Q
What includes both primary sex characteristics and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity?
A
A person’s sex label
4
Q
What is a person’s deeply held internal perception of their behavior and attitudes based on social expectations, accompanying physiological aspects of sex
A
Their gender label
5
Q
Between sex and gender, which doesn’t vary significantly between different human societies?
A
Sex
6
Q
What term refers to a combination of primary sex characteristics?
A
Intersex
7
Q
What is another word for Intersex?
A
Differences of sexual development
8
Q
What % of babies are born with either internal or external sex organs that are atypical?
A
1.7-percent
9
Q
Are all atypical sex characteristics apparent at birth?
A
No, some don’t display until puberty
10
Q
Between sex and gender, which is deeply cultural, a social construction with real consequences?
A
Gender
11
Q
What term refers to the way one thinks about gender and self-identities?
A
Gender identities
12
Q
What is an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identitiy and gender corresponds with their birth sex?
A
Cisgender
13
Q
What term describes people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex?
A
Transgender
14
Q
What is the term for how one demonstrates gender, behavior, and interactions?
A
Gender expressions
15
Q
What is the term for transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions so that their physical being is better aligned with their gender identity?
A
Transexual
16
Q
Is everyone who cross-dresses transgender?
A
No
17
Q
Do all transgender individuals attempt to alter their bodies?
A
No
18
Q
What are three different terms for individuals who are not conforming to the expressions of masculinity or femininity?
A
1) Gender non-conforming; 2) non-binary; 3) genderqueer
19
Q
What is gender dysphoria?
A
A condition where an individual experiences a significant and persistent mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity (the condition must persist for at least 6 months)
20
Q
What did WHO reclassify “gender identity disorder” as?
A
A sexual health (in leiu of mental health) condition labeled “gender incongruence”
21
Q
How much more likely are transgender people to experience assault or discrimination as non-transgender individuals?
A
Twice as likely
22
Q
What is the discriminatory practice of referring to a murdered transgender individual by their birth name and gender?
A
“Deadnaming”
23
Q
What is the term anthropologists used to refer to Native American individuals who occassionally or permanently dressed and lived as a different gender?
A
Berdache
24
Q
What is the Native American’s preferred term for Berdache?
A
Two Spirit
25
Is there a definitive sociological explanation for transgenderism?
No
26
Is the dichotomous view of gender universal?
No, some societies recognize a spectrum of gender identies
27
What are two examples of cultures who view gender on a non-dichotomous basis?
Native American Groups and Samoan culture
28
Describe Native American groups view of sex and gender
Native American groups view sex and gender as a spectrum as opposed to the binary view held by European colonists
29
Describe Samoan culture's view of gender
Samoan culture accepts a "third gender" called Fa'afafine
30
What is Fa'afafine?
Samoan philosphy describing individuals born biologically male, but embodying both masculine and feminine traits
31
What term refers to society's concept of how people are expected to look and how they should behave based on societally created norms for masculinity and femininity
Gender role
32
By what age do children start to show awareness of gender roles?
2 or 3 years old
33
What are the four major agents of socialization that reinforce gender roles?
1) Family; 2) schools; 3) peer groups; 4) mass media
34
What term refers to prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another
Sexism
35
What is the term for a pattern that appears in all societies?
Cultural universal
36
What is the term for a process through which people learn gender roles and their culture's value system?
Socialization
37
What do Sociologists focus on when studying sex and sexuality?
Sexual attitudes and practices
38
With regard to sexual attitudes, how does the United States compare to its Western counterparts?
Fairly conservative
39
With regard to sexual attitudes, how does the United States compare to its some other non-Western parts of the world?
Quite open
40
What is the term used for a person's capacity for sexual feelings?
Sexuality
41
What are "normal" sexual behaviors based upon?
The mores and values of a given society
42
What five agents of socialization are responsible for determining an individual's sexual attitutdes?
1) Family, 2) education system; 3) peers; 4) media; 5) religion
43
Of industrialized nations, which country is thought to be the most liberal in attitudes about sex?
Sweden
44
What is the term for a person's physical, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex?
Sexual orientation
45
What are the four main categories of Sexual Orientation?
1) Heterosexeuality; 2) homosexuality; 3) bisexuality; 4) asexuality
46
What is heterosexuality?
Attraction to individuals of the other sex
47
What is homosexuality?
Attraction to individuals of the same sex
48
What is bisexuality?
Attraction to individuals of either sex
49
What is asexualiity?
No attraction to either sex
50
What is pansexuality?
An attraction to people regardless of sex, gender, gender identity, or gender expression
51
What is omnisexuality?
An attraction to people of all sexes
52
What is an aromantic person?
A person who does not experience romantic attraction
53
What is demisexual?
Feeling a sexual attraction to someone only after they form an emotional bond
54
What is graysexual or grayromantic?
The concept that sexual orientations exist on a spectrum and there may be no specific term to describe how an individual feels
55
According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their sexual orentation at what age?
Between middle childhood and early adolescence
56
Who was among the first to concepualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight?
Alfred Kinsey
57
What did Kinsey develop?
A six-point scale ranging from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual
58
What is the term used to describe non-sexual same-sex relations?
Homosocial feelings
59
Who coined the term Homosocial?
Eve Kosofsky Segwick
60
What is the term for an ideology and institutional practices that privlege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations and is embedded in our social institutions?
Heterosexism
61
What is the term for an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals and accounts for further stereotyping and discrimination?
Homophobia
62
What is a Heteronormative Society?
A society that assumes sexual orientation is biologically determined and unambiguous
63
What is the term referring to a series of political campaigns for reforms on a variety of issues that affect women's quality of life?
Feminist movements
64
When was the first women's rights convention held in Seneca Falls, New York?
1848
65
What document was authored at the first wormen's rights convention?
Declaration of Sentiments
66
Which two movements did the Declaration of Sentiments connect?
Slavery abolition movement and women's rights movement
67
Who authored the Declaration of Sentiments?
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
68
What was the 15th amendment and why was it unpopular with suffragists?
It prohibits denial of voting rights based upon race or skin color; it was unpopular with suffragists because it left woment out (only applied to men of all races)
69
When was the 15th amendment proposed?
1869
70
What was the 19th amendment and when was it ratified?
Gave women the right to vote and was ratified in 1920
71
How many waves of feminism have there been so far?
Four
72
When did the first wave of feminism take place?
1948 - 1960
73
What was the biggest success in the first wave of feminism?
Ratification of the 19th amendment
74
What were limitations of the first wave of feminism?
It was limited by its lack of inclusion of women of color and poor women
75
Who gave her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech at an Ohio women's convention led by Lucy Gage in 1851?
Sojourner Truth
76
Who was an advocate for free and available birth control?
Margaret Sanger
77
When did the second wave of feminism take place?
1960's - 1980's
78
What are three important characteristics of the second wave of feminism?
1) Drew in women of color and developing nations seeking sisterhood and solidarity; 2) demonstrated that race, class, and gender oppression are all related; 3) influenced by other social movements of the 1960s (civil rights, anti-war, environmental, student, gay rights, and farm workers movement)
79
What is credited with kicking-off the second wave of feminism?
Betty Freidan's 1963 book The Feminine Mystique which explicitly objected to the mainstream media image of women
80
What was the biggest success in the second wave of feminism?
1972 Congressional approval of the Equal Rights amendment (which never became a constitutional amendment because it wasn't ratified by the states
81
When did the third wave of feminism take place?
1990s - 2008
82
What are four characteristics of the third wave of feminism?
1) Diverse strains of feminist activity arising from the perceived failures of and backlash against the second wave of feminism; 2) included a diverse group of women with a diverse set of identities; 3) merged feminine imagery with high powered careers and robust sex lives; 4) effectively used mass media to create a global, multicultural, and boundry-crossing feminism
83
When did the the fourth wave of feminism take place?
2008 - present
84
What are characteristics of the fourth wave of feminism?
Defined by technology and charactertized by the #metoo and #timesup movements
85
What are two perceived successes of the fourth wave of feminism?
1) Prolifereation of social media tags that promote inclusion and effectively dismantle the gender and sex binaries that have fragmented the movement; 2) record number of women elected in the 2018 midterm elections
86
What is the term for a type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues
Feminist theory
87
What term refers to a set of institutional structures that are based on the belief that men and women are dichotomous and unequal categories?
Patriarchy
88
What type of ideology, which assumes that physiological sex differences between males and females are related to differences in their character, behavior, and ability, is key to patriarchy?
Dominant gender ideology
89
Which theory developed by Dorothy Smith indicates that feminist social science shoudl be practiced from the standpoint of women?
Standpoint theory
90
What are two important characteristics of Standpoint Theory?
1) Women's lives are more effectively examined from the "actualities" of their lived experience in "everyday/evernight" life; 2) observation that women's position in modern society is acutely divided by the experience of dual conscience of household and institutional
91
Which theory combines critical race theory, gender conflict theory, and Marx's class theory, and is a "prism for understanding certain kinds of problems"
Interactional theory
92
With respect to gender, which type of theorist looks at how values and norms shape societal notional of success in the workforce and how these reinforce the division of labor and gender inequality?
Structural theorists
93
With respect to gender, which type of theorist might look at how the bourgeoisie use the wage gap to perpetuate an unequal system and how that gap is successful in keeping the working classes separated with false consciousness?
Conflict theorists
94
With respect to gender, which type of theorist examines how meaning is produced in social interactions and how it is translated into wage inequality?
Interactionists
95
What is the term for understanding how each woman's experience is also influenced by race/ethnicity, social class, age, etc?
Intersectionality
96
What are four characteristics of Structural Functionalism as related to gender?
1) Views the family as the most integral component of society with assumptions about gender roles within marriage assuming a prominent place; 2) argues that gender roles were established well before pre-industrial era with men handling responsibilities outside of home and women taking care of domestic responsibilities; 3) once established, these roles were passed to subsequent generations since they serve to keep the family system functioning properly; 4) social and economic changes during WWII resulted in changes to the family structure that resulted in an imbalance when men returned from war and wanted to reclaim jobs
97
What are four characteristics of Conflict Theory as related to gender?
1) Men are seen as the dominate group and women as the subordinate group; 2) social problems arise when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups; 3) Friedrich Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the workforce is also seen in the household with women assuming the role of proletariat; 4) when women become wage earners, they can gain power in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the home
98
What does Symbolic Interactionism aim to understand?
Human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction
99
When people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, what are they doing?
Doing gender
100
What term refers to the way in which socially created definitions shape the way people see and expereince sexuality?
Social construction of sexuality
101
What is the term for the belief that men and women behave differently due to biological differences?
Biological determination
102
What are three characteristics of Structural Functionalism with regard to sex?
1) It is important to regulate sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability; 2) the purpose of encouraging sexual activity in the confines of marriage is to intensify the bond between spouses and to ensure procreation occurs in a stable, legally recognized relationship; 3) homosexuality cannot, then, be promoted on a large-scale because procreation would eventually cease and be dysfunctional to society
103
Which theory takes an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that focuses on the mismatches between anatomical sex, gender identity, and sexuality, and highlights the need for a more flexible and fluid conceptualization of sexuality?
Queer theory
104
Who argued against U.S. society's monolithic definition of sexuality and its reduction to a single factor of the sex of someone's partner, identifying dozens of ways in which people's sexualities were different?
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick (one of the founders of Queer Theory)
105
What is the term for overgeneralization about the attitudes, traits, or behavior pattern of women or men?
Gender sterotyping
106
What are two examples of secondary agents of socialization that are influential with regard to gender roles?
1) Religion; 2) workplace
107
What is institutional discrimination?
Discrimination that is built into the social structure
108
What is the term for the idea that women are unable to reach the executive suite?
Glass ceiling
109
True or false: Only women are affected by gender stratification?
False, gender stratification typically places men above women, but that does not mean they are not affected by it
110
According to national surveys, most U.S. parents support which type of sex education program in school?
Abstinence plus sexual safety
111
The concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men is an example of what?
Double standard
112
What is both an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege straight people and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations?
Heterosexism
113
What is an extreme or irrational aversion to gay, lesbian, bisexual, or all LGBTQ people which often manifests as prejudice or bias?
Homophobia
114
What is a fear, hatred, or dislike of transgender people, and/or prejudice and discrimination against them by individucals or institutions?
Transphobia
115
What is the term for an ideology that men are superior to women in all aspects of life?
Myisogyny
116
Which type of feminism considers the role of family in perpetuating male dominiance, in particular?
Radical feminism (note that "radical" means "root")
117
What ideology toward sexual differences is grounded in the assumption that physiological sex differences between males and females are related to differences in their character, behavior, and ability?
Dominant gender ideology
118
What is "doing gender"?
When people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them
119
Describe the social construction of sexuality
Refers to the way in which socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior shape the way people see and experience sexuality
120
What is biological determinism?
the belief that men and women behave differently due to differences in their biology
121
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, when do we "do gender"?
All of the time, in everything we do
122
What is the term for an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western's society's rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation?
Queer theory
123
Is there any evidence that links sexual orientaiton to genetic, hormonal, developmental, social,a nd cultural influences?
No
124
Which sociological theory is linked to the concept of "doing gender"?
Symbolic interaction theory
125
Is there a biological basis for racial differences?
No, race is a social construct
126
What does Race refer to?
It is socially constructed and refers to the physical differences that a society considers significant
127
What term describes shared culture, including the practices, values, and beliefs of a group?
Ethnicity
128
What term is used for groups who are singled out from others based on their physical or cultural characteristics?
Minority groups
129
What are five characteristics of Minority Groups?
1) Unequal treatment and less power; 2) distinguishing physical or cultural characteristics; 3) involuntary group membership; 4) awareness of subordination; 5) high rate of in-group marriage
130
What is another term used for the minority group?
Subordinate group
131
What is another term used for the majority group?
Dominant group
132
What theory is based on the dominant group displacing its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group?
Scapegoat theory
133
Are minority groups always numerically less in quantity?
No
134
What is based on almost any characteristic including race, ethnicity, age, gender, and sexual orientation; are often negative and generalize; and tend to be recycled from subordinate groups?
Stereotypes
135
What is the term for beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes held about a group?
Prejudice
136
What is the term for a type of prejudice used to justify a belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others and includes a set of practiices used to disadvantage a racial minority?
Racism
137
What is the term that refers to the way that racism is embedded into society?
Institutional racism
138
What is the term for the law enforcement practice of stopping and detaining people based on race alone?
Racial profiliing
139
What is the term for the behavior generally expressed as "I don't see race" but fails to recognize the social reality of minority groups?
Color-blind racism
140
What is the term for when someone believes one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group?
Colorism
141
What consists of actions against a group of people and can be based on age, race, religion, health, or other indicators?
Discrimination
142
What is the term for the promotion of the status of white people simply for being part of the dominant group?
White privlege
143
What is the term for the practice of routinely refusing mortgages in predominately minority communities?
Redlining
144
What is the term for the intergenerational impact of racism limiting the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth?
Sedimentation of racial inequality
145
What is miscegenation?
Sexual relationships or reproduction between people of different ethnic groups
146
What is the term for the deliberate annihilation of a targeted group?
Genocide
147
What term refers to the a subordinate group being forced to leave a certain area or country by a domiant group?
Expulsion
148
What is the term for the physical separation of two groups in residence, workplace, and social functions?
Segregation
149
Which type of segregation is enforced by law?
De jure segregation
150
Which type of segregation is due to factors besides established law?
De facto segregation
151
What is an example of de jure segreation in the southern part of the United States post-civil war?
Jim Crow laws
152
What theory is represented by the idea of a salad bowl with a great mixture of different cultures with each culture retaining its own identity and adds flavor to the whole?
Pluralism
153
What is the term for the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on characteritics of the dominant culutre?
Assimilation
154
What is the process of a minority and majority group combining to form a new group, creating a classic "melting pot" analogy?
Amalgamation
155
What term refers to the scattering of people with African ancestry all over the world, but predominantly in North and South America?
African diaspora
156
What term refers to the sterotype that is typically applied to Asian groups as reaching significant educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment?
Model minority
157
Describe Allport's Contact Hypothesis theory
The theory that if two groups with equal status and common goals come together, they can reduce stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination
158
Describe Tajfel's Social Identity theory
The theory that because people examine their own identity as based on group membership, we divide the world into "them" and "us"
159
How do Functionalists see race and ethnicity?
Functionalism sees racial and ethnic inequalities as having served an important function in order to continue to exist
160
How do Conflict Theorists see race and ethnicity?
They look at the struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, using that history to analyze everday life for minorities in the U.S.
161
What theory suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes and must examine how our experience with race is shaped by many factors
Intersection Theory
162
How do Interactionists see race and ethnicity?
Interactionists propose that the symbols of race (not race itself) are what lead to racism and racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of the dominant group
163
What is the term for the feeling that one's identify is divided because of race and how it influences the sense of self (by WEB DuBois)?
Double consciousness
164
What theory indicates that prejudice is embedded in our culture and we are surrounded by images of stereotypes and casual expressions of racism and prejudice?
Culture of prejudice
165
What is Medical Sociology?
A systemic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and healthy
166
What explains how society both shapes and is shaped by medical ideas, and emphasizes the socio-cultural aspectsof the discipline's approach to physical, objectively definable phenomena?
The social construction of health
167
What is the impact of viewing illness as a Stigma?
It pushes others to view the ill person undesirably
168
What are illnesses that are questioned or questionable by a fraction of the medical professionals, creating a dynamic that affects how a patient seeks treatment and what treatment is received?
Contested illnesses
169
What term is used in medical sociology regarding sickness and the rights and obligation of the affected?
Sick role
170
What are the two rights of a sick person?
1) To be exempt from normal social roles; 2) not responsible for their condition
171
What does exemption require?
Legitimization by a physician
172
What are the obligations of a sick person?
1) To try to get well; 2) to cooperate with medical professionals
173
How is health viewed by Functional theorists?
As vital to the stability of the society, and therefore sickness is a sanctioned form of devience
174
How do Conflict Theorists view healthcare?
They suggest that issues with the healthcare system are rooted in capitalist society
175
What is Commodification of Health?
The changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold
176
How do Symbolic Interactionists view health and illness?
They focus on the specific meanings and causes people attribute to illness'
177
What is the term for the process that changes "bad" behavior into "sick" behavior?
Medicalization of deviance
178
What is the term for when "sick" behavior is normalized again?
Demedicalization
179
What is the term for the study of the causes and distribution of diseases?
Social epidemiology
180
What term do economic and political theorists use for industrialized nations?
Core nations
181
What term do economic and political theorists use for developing nations?
Semi-peripheral nations
182
What term do economic and political theorists use for relatively underdeveloped nations?
Peripheral nations
183
What two disorders are prevelant in high income countries compared to less affluent nations?
1) Obesity; 2) depression
184
What four health issues are more prevelant in less affluent countries compared to high income nations?
1) Infectious diseases; 2) high infant mortality rates; 3) scarse medical personnel; 4) inadequate water and sewer systems
185
What is one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of a person's morbidity and mortality experience?
Socioeconomic status
186
What the the term for the incidence of disease?
Morbidity
187
What is the term referring to the process by which previously normal aspects of life are redifined as deviant and needing medical attention to remedy and are seen as an example of institutionaized sexism?
Medicalization
188
According to NIMH, what ratio of adults in the U.S. live with mental illness?
1 in 5
189
What are the three most common mental disorder in the U.S.?
1) Anxiety disorders; 2) mood disorders; 3) personality disorders
190
What is the term referring to a reduction in one's ability to perform everyday tasks?
Disability
191
What term desribes physical limitations?
Impairment
192
What is the term for being labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometines even shunned?
Stigmitization
193
What are people with disability given in lieu of being afforded a full identity by society?
Master status
194
What are the two main types of healthcare coverage?
1) Public healthcare (government funded); 2) private healthcare (privately funded)
195
What type of government funded healthcare is for those over sixty five?
Medicare
196
What type of government funded healthcare is for those with very low incomes who meet eligibility requirements?
Medicaid
197
What is the definition of Underinsured?
Those who pay at least 10% of their income on healthcare costs not covered by insurance (or 5% for low-income adults)
198
What are three reasons for people being uninsured?
1) Skyrocketing healthcare costs; 2) income level not low enough to meet eligibility for government supported insurance; 3) physicians refusing to take Medicaid
199
What is the term for a healthcare system run by the government and employs the doctors, nurses, and other staff, and it owns and runs the hospitals?
Socialized medicine
200
What is the term for a healthcare system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone?
Universal healthcare
201
What is the term for the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and is an important component of disease prevention and control?
Epidemiology
202
What is the social institution of medicine based upon?
The socially constructed understandings of what is and is not illness and wellness
203
Describe three characteristics of Social Stratification
1) Ranking individuals and groups within a society; 2) based upon wealth, income, race, education,and power; 3) differs by society/nation
204
Describe two characteristics of Social Inequality
1) Unequal distribution of valued goods & opportunities; 2) many people at the bottom, few at the top
205
Describe two characteristics of Global Stratification
1) Compares wealth, economic stability & power of countries worldwide; 2) gaps exist between and within nations
206
What does the term Wealth mean?
A person's net value in money and assets
207
What does the term Income mean?
Wages and/or investment dividends
208
What view do sociologists take when examining Social Inequality?
1) Macrosociological view (looks at society as a whole, not just the individual level); 2) asks the following questions: Who holds positions of power? How does a society view crime against different individuals? What practices are in place to uphold or deny rights to groups of people?
209
What are systemic global classification terms in Cold War Terminology?
First world, second world, third world
210
What is a fourth Cold War Terminology category introduced later?
Fourth world: stigmatized groups without a formal nation (homeless, prisoners, many refugees)
211
What two types of governments does Cold War Terminology deliniate between?
Capitalist/democratic nations (first world) vs. authoritarian/communist nations (many second world)
212
What is the term for the idea that the first world is obliged to help develop the third world (an idea that is problematic and patronizing)?
Noblesse Oblige
213
What are the systemic global classification terms in World Systems Approach terminology (per Wallerstein)?
Core, semi-peripheral, peripheral
214
What are the systemic global classification terms in World Bank Economic Classification terminology?
High-income, middle-income, low-income
215
What measure is the World Bank Economic Classification system based upon?
Gross National Income (GNI) Per Capita
216
What are issues faced by High Income Nations?
Capital flight and deindustrialization (captial leaves as high income nations outsource production for cheaper labor)
217
What are issues faced by Middle Income Nations?
Debt accumulation as economic downturns devalue production
218
What are issues faced by Low Income Nations?
Poverty, disproportionate impoverishment of women
219
What system measures income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale showing wealth gap between core and peripheral nations?
GINI Coefficient
220
What do 1 and 100 represent, respectively, on the GINI Coefficient scale?
1 represents complete equality; 100 signifies highest possible inequality
221
What determines whether a country is "more" or "less" developed?
1) Rankings based upon per capita GDP (includes goods, services,a nd government spending); 2) the Population Reference Bureau (PRB)
222
What two metrics does the Population Reference Bureau (PRB) use?
Measures relative economic well-being of countries using 1) Gross National Income (GNI); and 2) Purchasing Power Parity (PPP); provides relative global unit for ranking
223
What is the term used to describe the heirarchal ranking of groups and individuals in society?
Social stratification
224
What term refers to the uneven distribution of goods and opportunities in a society?
Social inequality
225
What does Global Stratification examine?
Unequal wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries across the globe
226
What are three characteristics of Closed Systems?
1) Accomdate little change in social position, often determined by birth; 2) mobility and relationships between levels is not permitted; 3) examples include slavery, feudal system (estate system), and caste system
227
What are two characteristics of Open Systems?
1) Generally based on achievement, allow more movement and interaction between layers and classes; 2) examples include class system, meritocracy
228
According to Max Weber, what are three components of stratification?
1) Class; 2) status; 3) power
229
What is Class defined as?
Level of wealth and income
230
What is Status defined as?
Level of presitge and honor
231
What is Power defined as?
Ability to exert will over others and one's own life
232
What is Meritocracy?
An ideal where social position is based solely on personal merit and achievements
233
What are the three main classes in the United States?
1) Upper class (money, power, status); 2) middle class (divided into upper-, average-, and lower-middle classes); 3) lower class (working poor)
234
What is another term for lower-middle class?
Working class
235
What is the definition of Status Consistency and what is it based upon?
Consistency or lack thereof of social postion; based upon factors like income, education, and occupation
236
What three things determine Social Mobility?
1) Inequality of opportunity; 2) life chances (birth social class, geoography, ancestry, race, ethnicity, age, gender); 3) standard of living (income, employment, poverty rates, housing affordability, quality of life)
237
What are five types of Social Mobility?
1) Upward mobility; 2) downward mobility; 3) intergenerational mobility; 4) intragenerational mobility; 5) structural mobility
238
Which type of mobility is associated with "the American Dream" or "rags to riches"?
Upward mobility
239
Which type of mobility is associated with unemployment, business setbacks, illness, and divorce?
Downward mobility
240
Which type of mobility refers to mobility between generations (are we better or worse off than the generation before us?)
Intergenerational mobility
241
Which type of mobility refers to status change within one's own lifetime?
Intragenerational mobility
242
What are two characteristics of Structural Mobility?
1) Societal change which enables group movement; 2) societal level (not individucal level) (examples: outsourcing of manufacturing jobs)
243
What is the term referring to the disproportionate representation of women and children among the world's poor, a phenomenon linked to lower standards of living?
Feminization of Poverty
244
What are three characteristics of Global Feminization of Poverty?
1) Increase in frequency of female-headed households; 2) biases against women within the household; 3) neoliberal economic poliicies worldwide (laissez-faire economics, capitalism, free trade, privatization, reduced government spending, limited aid to poor)
245
Which type of poverty is defined as being able to afford necessities, but unable to meet society's average standard of living?
Relative poverty
246
Which type of poverty is defined as not being able to afford basic necessities such as adeqauate food, clean water, safe housing, and access to healthcare?
Absolute poverty
247
Which type of poverty depends on one's definition of being poor (may change relative to others), when one's actual income does not meet their expectations and perceptions?
Subjective poverty
248
Where are a majority of the world's poorest NATIONS?
Africa
249
Where are a majority of the world's poorest POPULATIONS?
Asia
250
What are poverty characteristics of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)?
1) Non-oil rich nations are impoverished; 2) slow economic growth; 3) social unrest
251
What are three consequences of poverty?
1) Global inequality; 2) poor physical and mental health; 3) prevalence of crime
252
What are three characteristics of Underground Economy (or unregulated market)?
1) No taxes or government permits; 2) no human protections are in place; 3) underground nature prohibits economic growth
253
What is the definition of Poverty Line in the U.S.?
Level of income that defines income needed for basic standard of living
254
How is Poverty Line calculated in the U.S.?
3 x the cost to buy a healthy diet (to account for other living expenses)
255
What are factors causing the Povety Line to fluctuate?
Household size and economy, and cost of living
256
What ratio of Americans are living below the poverty line?
1 in 9
257
What are characteristcs of the theory that poverty is caused by a Personal Failing?
1) Meritocracy view; 2) "you just didn't try hard enough"; 3) due to personality characteristics, motivation, education
258
What are the characteristics of the theory that poverty is due to a Structural Failing?
1) "The system failed you"; 2) market fails to provide adequate job opportunities; 3) low minimum wages; 4) part-time jobs fail to provide benefits
259
What are three causes and consequences of the cyclical nature of poverty?
1) inadequate healthcare; 2) limited education; 3) inaccessibility of birth control
260
Which theory of sociology relative to stratifcation includes why we have global inequality and what function stratification serves?
Functionalism
261
Which theory of sociology relative to stratifcation focuses on the creation and reproduction of inequality?
Conflict Theory
262
Which theory of sociology relative to stratifcation strives to explain how people's social standing affects their everyday interactions?
Symbolic Interactionism
263
Which thesis of Functionalism is predicated on "the greater the functional importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward"?
Davis-Moore thesis
264
What are two social benefits defined under the Functionalist theory?
1) Rewards greater educational attainment in social status and salary; 2) emphasizes the importance of skills attained from hard work, education
265
What are two social drawbacks defined under the Functionalist theory?
1) Not all jobs with presitge are compensated equally or commensurate with their efforts/merit; 2) not all economies adjust compensation according to job presige, suffer shortages in needed sectors
266
What are four characteristcs of Contflict Theory relative to social stratification?
1) Deeply critical of social stratification; 2) Marx believed it results from people's relationship to the means of production; 3) it perpetuates inequality; 4) capitalists own the means of production in a system that makes business owners rich and keeps workers poor
267
What are three characteristics of Social Interactionism relative to social stratification?
1) Explains stratification from the micro-level, focusing on individiual interactions and how they fit into society as whole; 2) appearance reflects perceived social standing (housing, clothing, grooming, transportation); 3) conspicuous consumption (designer bags, watches, logo representation)
268
What theoretical perspective on Global Stratification is defined by structural-functional veiwpoint and frames inequality as a function of industrial and cultural differences between nations (has Eurocentric bias)?
Moderization Theory
269
What theoretical perspective on Global Stratification works with Conflict Theory and indicates poor nations have been wronged by rich nations, includes exploitation cycle of dependence?
Dependency Theory
270
What two types of processes make up the Educational System that socializes us to our society?
1) Informal mechanisms; 2) formal mechanisms
271
When does Education begin as an informal process?
Birth
272
What institution can be either an agent of change or conformity (teaching individuals to think outsid the family and local norms while also acclimatizing them to their place in society)?
Schools
273
What is Education?
A means through which the aims and habits of a group of people are passed from one generation to the next; the process by which society deliberately passes accumulated knowledge, skills, customs, and values from one generation to the next
274
What are two items that affect education systems around the world?
1) Available resources; 2) money
275
What does the PISA test show regarding education in the U.S. relative to other high-income nations?
That our students lag behind
276
What two factors are U.S. educational differences and low ranking attributed to?
1) Differences in social backgrounds; 2) underformance of the middle class
277
What is the term used to describe the learning of academic facts and concepts thorugh a formal curriculum?
Formal education
278
What event made education more accessible?
Industrial Revolution
279
What is the term used to describe the learning of cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors by participating in a society?
Informal education
280
What is the term referrring to the way people come to learn values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture?
Cultural transmission
281
What term refers to people's equal ability to participate in an education system?
Universal access
282
What District Court decision in 1972, brought on the behalf of seven school-aged children with special needs, was a precedent for universal access to education?
Mills vs. Board of Education of the District of Columbia
283
Which sociological theory views education as one of the more important social institutions in society with both manifest and latent functions?
Functionalist Theory
284
What are defined as the primary functions that are intended and visible functions of formal education?
Manifest functions
285
What are three manifest functions of formal education?
1) Teaching academics; 2) socialization (teaching the practice of various social roles); 3) teaching societies core values (like social control)
286
What is the term referring to using the education system to sort and prepare students for different roles and statuses in society based on their perceived abilities and potential?
Social placement
287
What are defined as the unintended or unrecognized consequence of a social action or institution?
Latent functions
288
What are four latent functions of the formal educational system?
1) Introduce students to social networks; 2) teach ability to work with others in small groups; 3) teach U.S. values such as individualism and patriotism; 4) prepare students for competition thorugh athletics and academics
289
Which sociological theory believes the education system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity?
Conflict Theory
290
What is the term for cultural knowledge that serves as metaphorical currency and helps navigate a culture?
Cultural capital
291
What is the term for the type of nonacademic knowledge that students learn though informal learning and cultural transmission?
Hidden curriculum
292
What is the term for a formalized learning system that places students on "tracks" and perpetuates inequalities?
Tracking
293
What sociological theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality, particularly in education?
Feminist theory
294
Which sociological theory views education as one in which labeling theory is seen in action?
Symbolic Interactionist Theory
295
What do labels that are difficult to "shake off" create?
Self-fulfilling prophecies
296
What embodies the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain education level, or has certain job qualifications?
Credentialism
297
What is Labeling Theory?
The belief that individuals can come to identify and behave in ways that reflect the labels assigned to them by society
298
What court ruling in 1954 overturned the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling, and allowed for equal rights in education?
Brown vs. Board of Education
299
What 1966 report noted that children from families of lower socioeconomic staus often enter school with learning deficits that they struggle to overcome throughout education?
Coleman Report
300
What program was developed to give low-income students an opportunity to make up the preschool deficit identified in the Coleman report?
Head Start
301
Wha program was ordered by courts that involved bringing students to schools outside their neighborhoods to bring racial diversity into balance and was met by a great deal of resistance?
Busing
302
What act was passed in 2001 and requires states to test students in designated grades to determine qualification for federal funding
No Child Left Behind
303
What is the term referring to a curriculum focused on equipping students to succeed on standardized tests to the detriment of broader educational goals and concepts of learning?
Teaching to the Test
304
What is the term for attempts to give equal opportunity to minority students through offering instruction in languages other than English?
Bilingual Education
305
What is the term for a set of high-quality academic standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy that outline what a student should know and be able to do at the end of each grade?
Common core
306
What is the term for self-governing public schools that have signed agreements with state governments to improve students when poor performance is revealed?
Charter Schools
307
What are four contemporary issues in education?
1) Teacher effectiveness; 2) social promotion; 3) affirmative action; 4) rising student loan debt
308
What is the primary concern related to Teacher Effectiveness?
Teachers teaching subject matter outside of their own field of study, impacting their ability to adequately teach
309
What is Social Promotion?
Passing students to the next grade regardless of whether or not grade standards are met
310
What is the primary concern related to Affirmative Action and education?
Opponents suggest that minority students are given greater weighted priorities for admittance while supporters say it grants opportunities to students who are traditionally done a disservice in college admissions
311
What are defined as a purposeful, organized groups that strive to work toward a common social goal?
Social Movement
312
Which three theories help explain Collective Behavior?
1) Emergent-norm perspective; 2) value-added theory; 3) assembling perspective
313
What four levels do Social Movements occur on?
1) Local; 2) state; 3) national; 4) global
314
What four stages can many types of Social Movements be described in?
1) Preliminary stage; 2) Coalescence stage; 3) institutionalization stage; 4) Decline stage
315
What three things help explain social movements and their life cycles?
1) Resource mobilization; 2) framing; 3) new social movement theory
316
What four things act as agents of social change?
1) Technology; 2) social institutions; 3) population; 4) the environment
317
What is the term for any group behavior not mandated or regulated by an institution?
Collective behavior (think Flash mobs or going viral)
318
What are three key difference between Collective Behavior vs. Group Behavior?
1) Lifespan (collective behavior is short lived); 2) boundaries (collective behavior is flexible and open); 3) norms (collective norms are weak and unconventional)
319
What are three forms of Collective Behavior?
1) Crowd; 2) mass; 3) public
320
What is a Crowd?
Large group of people in close proximity
321
What are four types of Crowds?
1) Casual; 2) conventional; 3) expressive; 4) acting
322
Which type of crowd is incidentally close, not much interaction?
Casual crowd
323
Which type of crowd gathers for scheduled events?
Conventional crowd
324
Which type of crowd gathers to express emotion?
Expressive crowd
325
Which type of crowd is goal-oriented?
Acting crowd
326
What are characteristics of a Mass Public Behavior?
United by common interests, geographically separated
327
What are characteristics of a Public Collective Behavior?
Unorganized, diffuse groups who share ideas
328
What is the term for shared violence, vandalism, and crime?
Riots
329
What is the term for shared anxiety?
Mass hysteria
330
What is the term for a rapid rise to popularity followed by a dramatic loss of interest?
Fad
331
Which perspective is characterized by crowds consisting of rational beings making rational choices?
Emergent-norm perspective
332
Which perspective includes norms developing to fit the situation?
Emergent-norm perspective
333
Which sociological theory does the Emergent-Norm perspective fall under?
Symbolic Interactionist
334
Which theory is characterized by conditions adding up to a collective behavior's occurence?
Value-Added Theory
335
Which sociological theory does the Value-Added theory fall under?
Functionalist Theory
336
Which perspective is characterized by collective action based on shared interest?
Assembling perspective
337
Which sociological theory does assembling perspective fall under?
Symbolic Interactionist
338
What are three characteristics of the Emergent-Norm perspective?
1) Norms emerge from new circumstannces; 2) individuals respond, adapt to changes within personal norms; 3) focuses on individual decision-making within the group setting
339
Under which theory do specific conditons add up to predict the likelihood of an event?
Value-Added Theory
340
What are the six conditions of Value-Added theory?
1) Structural conduciveness; 2) structural strain; 3) growth & spread of generalized belief; 4) precipitating factors; 5) mobilization for action; 6) social control
341
Which of the Value-Added conditions is defined by people being aware of a problem and have the opportunity to gather?
Structural conduciveness
342
Which of the Value-Added conditions is defined by people's expectations about a situation are unmet, causing tension and strain?
Structural strain
343
Which of the Value-Added conditions is defined by a problem is identified, attibuted to a specific person/group?
Growth & spread of a generalized belief
344
Which of the Value-Added conditions is defined by spurring of collective behavior; emergence of a dramatic event?
Precipitating factors
345
Which of the Value-Added conditions is defined by leaders emerging and directing the crowd to act?
Mobilization for action
346
Which of the Value-Added conditions is defined by action by agents; only means of ending collective behavior episode?
Social control
347
Which persepctive involves: convergence clusters, convergent orientation, collective vocalization, collective verbalization, collective gesticulation, collective manipulation, collective locomotion?
Assembling perspective
348
What are four types of Social Movements?
1) Alternative movements; 2) redemptive movements; 3) reformative movements; 4) revolutionary movements
349
Which type of Social movement is characterized by self-improvement level specific beliefs, behaviors (Alcholics Anonymous, planned parenthood, Mothers Against Drunk Driving)?
Alternative movements
350
Which type of Social movement is characterized by individual to sect-level and seeks "meaning", provokes inner change, spiritual growth?
Redemptive (or religous) movements
351
Which type of Social movement is characterized by seeking to change specific parts of social structure, applied to entire population (suffrage, healthcare reforms, etc)?
Reformative movements
352
Which type of Social movement is characterized by seeking to change every aspect of society dramatically (Civil Rights Movement, political movements)?
Revolutionary Movements
353
Whch type of Social Movement is limited and involves specific individuals?
Alternative movements
354
Which type of Social Movement is radical and involves specific individuals?
Redemptive (or religous) movements
355
Which type of Social Movement is limited and involves everyone?
Reformative movements
356
Which type of Social Movement is Radical and involves everyone?
Revolutionary Movements
357
Which Social Movement stage is characterized by awareness spreading, leaders emerging?
Preliminary stage
358
Which Social Movement stage is characterized by publicity, awareness, and organization?
Coalescence stage
359
Which Social Movement stage is characterized by established organization, paid staff (no more volunteer force)?
Institutionalization stage
360
Which Social Movement stage is characterized by people losing interst/taking up new movements or change is accomplished?
Decline stage
361
What are five possible outcomes from the Bureuacratic (or institutionalized) stage of a social movement prior to decline?
1) Success; 2) failure; 3) cooption; 4) repression; 5) going mainstream
362
What are two models of the Resource Mobilization theoretical perspective?
1) Existing social movement sector; 2) social movement industry
363
Which model of the Resource Mobilization theoretical perspective is defined by pre-existing social movement industries with varying constituents and goals?
Existing social movement sector
364
Which model of the Resource Mobilization theoretical perspective is defined by a collection of social organizations striving toward similar goals?
Social movement industry
365
What are three types of Framing relative to theoretical perspectives?
1) Diagnostic framing; 2) Prognostic framing; 3) Motivational framing
366
Which type of theoretical perspecitve framing is characterized by a problem being clearly defined, no shades of gray?
Diagnostic framing
367
Which type of theoretical perspecitve framing is characterized by offering solutions & implemenation strategy?
Prognostic framining (multiple prognostic frames can compete within a diagnostic frame)
368
Which type of theoretical perspecitve framing is characterized by a call to action?
Motivational framing
369
What is frame alignment?
Brings multiple movements together, recruit future members
370
What are four types of Frame Alignment?
1) Bridging; 2) amplification; 3) extension; 4) transformation
371
What type of Frame Alignment is characterized by sturcturally unconnected groups with similar goals banding together?
Bridging
372
What type of Frame Alignment is characterized by seeking more universal appeal?
Amplification
373
What type of Frame Alignment is characterized by movements offering mutual support?
Extension
374
What type of Frame Alignment is characterized by evolution, revision of goals to remain relevant?
Transformation
375
Which theoretical perspective explains postindustrial, postmodern movements that traditional social movement theories do not cover?
New social movement theory
376
What are two characteristics of the New Social Movement Theory?
1) Understanding movements as they relate to politics, identity, culture, and social change; 2) goals are not materialistic, but humanitarian/human interest
377
What are two causes of social change?
1) any shift in the status quo; 2) agents of change (technolgy, social institutuions, population, environment)
378
What are examples of Technology as an agent of social change?
Crowdsourcing; electronic aggression/cyberbullying
379
What are examples of Social institutions as an agent of social change?
Industrialization, labor, education, religion
380
What are examples of population as an agent of social change?
Generational patterns, family planning-fertility rates across the globe
381
What are examples of Environment as an agent of social change?
Human ecology-growing populations & threat to environment; species extinction rates
