Midterm Exam Flashcards
(441 cards)
1
Q
What is Sociology?
A
The scientific study of social behavior and human groups
2
Q
What is Society?
A
A group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with one another, and who share a common culture
3
Q
What is Culture?
A
A group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs
4
Q
What is the study of society and social interaction?
A
Sociology
5
Q
What are Social Facts?
A
Aspects of social life that shape a person’s behavior
6
Q
What are seven examples of Social Facts?
A
Laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals
7
Q
What is a Stigma?
A
An attribute that is deeply discrediting
8
Q
What do sociologists define as a group of people who reside in a defined area, share a culture, and who interact?
A
Society
9
Q
Seeing an increase in same-sex couples, single fathers, single mothers, and extended families and connecting these changing family structures to a wider societal shifts is a an example of using what?
A
The sociological imagination
10
Q
What is a group’s shared practices, values and beliefs?
A
Culture
11
Q
What is the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior?
A
Figuration
12
Q
What is any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity?
A
Group
13
Q
What is an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence?
A
Reification
14
Q
What is a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture?
A
Society
15
Q
What is the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular?
A
Sociological meaning
16
Q
What is the systemic study of society and social interaction?
A
Sociology
17
Q
Who coined the term “sociology”?
A
Auguste Comte
18
Q
Which two major events impacted Comte?
A
French Revolution and Industrial Revolution
19
Q
What did Comte believe sociology could accomplish?
A
Unify other sciences and improve society
20
Q
How did Comte believe Society developed?
A
In three stages
21
Q
What is Comte’s “Law of Three Stages”?
A
1) Theological stage; 2) metaphysical stage; 3) scientific or positivist stage
22
Q
What is the Theological Stage?
A
Where people took religious views of society
23
Q
What is the Metaphysical Stage?
A
Where people understood society as natural (not supernatural)
24
Q
What is the Scientific or Positivist Stage?
A
Where society would be governed by reliable knowledge and would be understood in the light of knoweldge produced by science, specifically sociology
25
What is Positivism?
Scientific study of social patterns
26
Who translated Comte's writings to English and was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion, suicide, government, and women's rights?
Harriet Martineau
27
Which German social philosopher and economist wrote the Communist Manifesto?
Karl Marx
28
Did Marx agree with Comte's positivism?
No
29
What did Marx believe about how societies developed?
Marx believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes as they sought control over the means of production
30
What major events were occuring while Marx was developing his theories?
The Industrial Revolution and rise of capitalism, which had led to great disparities in wealth between owners of factories and the workers
31
Who published "The Study of Sociology" and favored a form of government that allowed market forces to control capitalism (disagreeing with both Comte and Marx)?
Herbert Spencer
32
Whose work did Spencer use as a comparison for his philosophical writings?
Charles Darwin's natural selection or survival of the fittest
33
Which German art critic analyzed the dynamics of 2 and 3-person groups and emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals
Georg Simmel
34
Who helped legitimize and define sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux?
Emile Durkheim
35
What did Durkheim articulate in his work "Division of Labour"?
How societies transform from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society
36
Who believed sociologists could study objective "social facts" and therefore determine if a society was "healthy" or "pathological"?
Durkheim
37
What are "social facts"?
Aspects of social life that shape a person's behavior
38
What defines a "healthy" society?
A stable society
39
What defines a "pathological" society?
A breakdown in social norms between individuals and society
40
What phenomenon did Durkheim specifically study?
Suicide rates between Catholics and Protestants
41
Who wrote "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" and theorized that religious belief shapes work habits and thus affects the larger social, political, and economic world?
Max Weber
42
Who introduced the concept of "verstehen"?
Weber
43
What is "verstehen"?
A German word that means to understand in a deep, empathetic way
44
Who, along with other like-minded sociologists, proposed the philosophy of "Antipositivism"?
Weber
45
What is "Antipositivism"?
The concept of social researchers striving for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
46
What is Quantitative Sociology?
Uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants
47
What is Qualitative Sociology?
Seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources (like books, magazines, journals, and popular media)
48
What was a topic of study in early sociology, and of particular importance to Marx's theory of communism
Economics
49
Which three classical sociologists were most influenced by the French Revoloution and Industrial Revolution?
Comte, Marx, Durkheim
50
Which type of sociologist would use a large questionnaire to gather data?
Quantitative
51
Who pioneered the used rigorous empirical methodology into sociology with a groundbreaking 1896-1897 study of the African American community in Philadelphia?
W.E.B. Du Bois
52
What type of research methods did Du Bois use?
Incorporated hundreds of interviews in order to document familial and employment structures and assess the chief challenges of the community; his studies challenged biological racism
53
Who studied the economy through a social lens and researched the chronically unemployed, currently unemployed, and the working classes?
Thorstein Veblen
54
Who founded a center in Chicago to serve needy immigrants through social and educational programs while providing extensive opportunities for sociological research?
Jane Addams
55
What areas of public policy were informed by Addams work?
Child labor, immigration, and health care
56
What did Addams believe was important in developing relationships and behaviors?
Environment
57
Who theorized the "Looking Glass Self"?
Charles Horton Cooley
58
What is the "Looking Glass Self" theory?
Individuals compare themselves to others in order to check themselves against social standards and remain part of the group; we see ourselves by reactions of others with whom we interact
59
What was Cooley concerned about?
With the increasing individualism and competitiveness of US society, fearing it would disrupt families as primary groups lost their importance
60
Who adopted Cooley's "Looking Glass Self" theory but felt the individuals that had the greatest impact on a person's life were significant others?
George Herbert Mead
61
Which three sociologists share the title of "father of symbolic interactionism"?
Cooley, Mead, and Goffman
62
Who was the amateur sociologist born into slavery, freed after the civil war, and went on to become politically active and an elementary school teacher, and examined racial and gender inequalities?
Ida B. Wells
63
Who was the founder of social ecology, and was attached to the Chicago School, and focused on how individuals lived within their environment and focused on ethnic minorities (specifically the Belgian oppression of the Congolese), eventually working with Ernest Burgess to research US inner cities and showed that no matter who lived there, social chaos was prevalent - ie. it was not the residents who caused the chaos, but the environment?
Robert E. Park
64
What is the difference between positivism and antipositivism?
Positivism emphasizes statistical data and the prediction of social trends; antipositivism focuses on personal narratives and the interpretation of social experiences
65
Which founder of sociology believed societies changed due to class struggle?
Karl Marx
66
Max Weber believed humans could not be studied purely objectively because they were influenced by what?
Their culture
67
Weber believed that outside observers should try to understand social worlds from an insider's perspective, and called this what?
Verstehen
68
What is the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values?
Antipositivism
69
What is the organized and generalized attitude of a social group called?
Generalized others
70
What is the scientific study of social patterns called?
Positivism
71
What includes the use of in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data?
Qualitative sociology
72
What uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants?
Quanitative sociology
73
What are specific individuals that impact a person's life called?
Significant others
74
What is a German word that means to understand in a deep way?
Verstehen
75
Whose research showed that segregation was harmful to young black schoolchildren?
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
76
Learning what three things are important to studying sociology?
1) Applying statistics; 2) generating theories; 3) analyzing policies
77
Who describes sociologists as being concerned with both monumental moments in peoples lives and common everyday events?
Berger
78
What allows us to grasp the interconnectedness of history and biography?
Sociological imagination
79
Who developed the theory of Sociological Imagination?
C. Wright Mills
80
What does Sociological Imagination make a connection between?
Personal challenges and larger social issues (allows individuals to see the relationships between events in their personal lives and events in their society)
81
What are private problems experienced within the character of the individual and the range of their immediate relation to others called?
Personal troubles
82
What are issues that lie beyond one's personal control and the range of one's inner life, rooted in society instead of at the individual level, called?
Social or public issues
83
What is a way of thinking that looks at personal troubles in the context of larger public issues called?
Sociological imagination
84
Who coined the phrase "sociological imagination"?
C. Wright Mills
85
Based upon sociological imagination, how would an individual view a quinceanaera, a coming of age celebration for 15-year old girls?
As a gathering and a rite of passage
86
Using sociological imagination, what is the most likely description of eating disorders?
They are social issues related to standards of beauty that emphasize a slender body
87
What is the use of imaginative thought to understand the relationship between the individual (personal troubles) and the broader workings of society (public issues) called?
Sociological imagination
88
What are the three main paradigms in sociology?
1) Functionalist paradigm; 2) conflict paradigm; 3) symbolic interactionist paradigm
89
What is a sociological theory?
It seeks to explain social phenomena
90
What is a hypothesis?
A testable proposition
91
What are macro-level theories?
Relate to large-scale issues and large groups of people
92
What are micro-level theories?
Look at very specific relationship between individuals and small gorups
93
What are grand theories?
Attempt to explain large scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form, and why they chnage
94
What are Paradigms?
Philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
95
What is the focus of Structural Functionalsim?
The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the functioning of the whole
96
What level does Structural Functionalism focus on (macro or micro)?
Macro (to mid)
97
What is the focus of Conflict Theory?
The way inequities and inequalities contribute to social, political, and power differences and how they perpetuate power
98
What level does Conflict Theory focus on (macro or micro)?
Macro
99
What is the focus of Symbolic Interactionism?
The way one-on-one interactions and communications behave
100
What level does Symbolic Interactionalsim focus on (macro or micro)?
Micro
101
Which of the three main paradigms does this analogy align with: How each organ works to your body healthy (or not)?
Structural functionalism
102
Which of the three main paradigms does this analogy align with: The people with the most toys win, and they change the rules of the game to keep winning?
Conflict theory
103
Which of the three main paradigms does this analogy align with: What does it mean to be an X?
Symbolic interactionism
104
Under which of the three main paradigms might this question be asked:How do students react to cultural messages in school?
Symbolic interactionism
105
Under which of the three main paradigms might this question be asked: How does education work to transmit culture?
Structural functionalism
106
Under which of the three main paradigms might this question be asked: Does education transmit only the dominant culture?
Conflict theory
107
In sociology, what is a proposed explanation about social interactions or society?
Theory
108
What is a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society?
Macro-level theories
109
What is the study of specific relationships between indiveicuals or small groups?
Micro-level theories
110
A sociologist conducts research into the ways that Latino students have unequal experiences in the US education system. She studies the quality of public schools in Hispanic serving neighberohoods and notices a lack of culturally relevant curriculum as well as disparities in detention, school suspenisions, and expulsions for Latiino students. What theoretical appproach is the sociologist using?
Conflict theory
111
A sociologist examines the likelihood of a female PhD candidate in sociology getting a job offer and finds that females who wear wedding rings are less likely to be offered a job, regardless of their qualifications. Which sociological perspective is most closely aligned with this research project?
Feminist theory
112
Which theory sees society as a structure with interelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society?
Structural functionalism
113
Which main sociological theories use a macro-level orientation?
Structural functionalism and conflict theory
114
What did functionalist Emile Durkheim theorize about suicide?
Rates of suicide are related to social factors such as religion, marital status, country of origin, parental status, and whether the country is at war or not
115
What are social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society?
Dysfunctions
116
What are the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process?
Latent functions
117
What are the sought consequences of a social process?
Manifest functions
118
What are the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customes, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life?
Social facts
119
What are patterns of beliefs and behaviors forcused on meeting social needs?
Social institutions
120
What are the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion?
Social solidarity
121
What is the critical analysis of the way gender affects societal structures, power, and inequality?
Feminist theory
122
How does Conflict theory look at society?
As a competition for limited resources
123
What two classes did Marx see society as being made up of?
1) Bourgeoisie; 2) proletariat
124
What is the Bourgeoisie?
Those who owned the means of production (ie. factory owners in the Industrial Revolution)
125
What is the proletariat?
Workers
126
Who believed that the history of society was one of class struggle?
Marx
127
The US hired private military contractors to provide security in Iraq after the US invaded Baghdad. The private corporations that provided security were linked to top ranking government officials and military leaders, all of whom benefited finacially from the secruity contracts. Which concept would conflict theorists apply to this scenario?
Power elite
128
Which feminist theorist used applied sociology to fight for immigrant women's rights in Chicago in the early 20th century?
Jane Addams
129
Consider the #MeToo movement from a feminist point of view, what term best describes the prevalence of male-dominated institutions including film and television, corporations, and government?
Patriarchy
130
What is the term for awareness that one is a proletarian, a worker, and has an understanding of solidary in a class struggle against the bourgeoisie?
Class consciousness
131
What is a term used to describe an individual whose identity is divided into several facets?
Double consciousness
132
What is the term for proletarians being unable to identify and understand their own class position and exploitation?
False consciousness
133
What is the term for one who believes that females should be equal to males?
Feminist
134
What theory utilizes MULTIPLE identities (such as race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, economic class, etc) as important to understanding inequality?
Intersectional theory
135
What is a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to postions of power and sources of income) that are based on the belief that males are and should be dominant?
Patricarchy
136
What is the term for the dominant individuals and groups within the military, business world, governments, and other institutions who are at the top of the power hierarchy?
Power elite
137
What is the term for those who labor in the means of productions (workers) and who do not possess or control capital, as the bourgeoisie does?
Proletariat
138
Describe the theory of Symbolic Interactionism
A micro-level theory that focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal,and to symbols
139
Describe Cooley's "Looking Glass Self" theory
How a person's sense of self grows out of interactions with others
140
What does a Dramaturgical Theorist compare social interactions to?
Theatrical roles
141
The study of hand gestures, colors, and language associated with the various gangs of NYC are most directly aligned to which of the main sociological paradigms ?
Symbolic interactionism
142
What is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be?
Constructivism
143
What is the technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance, including role improvisation?
Dramaturgical analysis
144
What is the concept stating that the development of self occurs through interactiosn with others, based on our understanding of how others percieive us?
Looking-glass self
145
What is the theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)?
Symbolic interactionism
146
What is evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation?
Emperical evidence
147
What is a sociological approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction?; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing, but is a typically more narrative or descriptive
Interpretive framework
148
What is a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together?
Meta-analysis
149
What are the six steps of the Scientific Method?
1) Ask question; 2) research existing sources; 3) formulate a hypothesis; 4) design and conduct a study; 5) draw conclusions; 6) report results
150
What is a measurement considered if it actually measures what it is intented to measure, according to the topic of the study?
Valid
151
When a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation?
Correlation
152
What is a variable changed by other variables?
Dependent variable
153
What is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables?
Hypothesis
154
What are variables that cause changes in dependent variables?
Independent variables
155
What is the term for a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research?
Literature review
156
What are specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study?
Operational definitions
157
What is the term for a measure of a study's consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced?
Reliability
158
What is an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducted a study, and drawing conclusion?
Scientific method
159
What is the term for the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study?
Validity
160
What six principles does the ASA Code of Ethics consist of?
1) Professional comptetence; 2) integrity; 3) professional and scientific responsibility; 4) respect for people's rights, dignity, and diversity; 5) social responsibility; 6) human rights
161
What are five ethical standards that relate most to the research process itself?
1) Confidentiality; 2) informed consent; 3) research planning; 4) implementation; 5) dissemination
162
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
The tendency of people to change their behaviors because they know they are being watched
163
What is a set of guidelines that the ASA has established to foster ethical research and professionallhy responsible scholarship in sociology?
Code of ethics
164
What is the term for the practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgement, during the course of a study and also when publishing results
Value neutrality
165
Describe structural functional theory
Seeing society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individucals in society
166
Which respect to sociological experiements, what is the term for people who are the subjects of a study?
Population
167
What is the term for every person in a population having the same chance of being chosen for the study?
Random sample
168
What is Ethnography?
The extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of entire social settings, involving the objective observation of an entire community
169
What is Institutional Ethnography?
An extenstion of basic ethnographic resesearch principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships
170
What is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual where a researcher examines existing sources, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation, and even participant participation?
Case study
171
What is Secondary Data?
Already completed work of other researchers
172
What method of research consists of questionaires and interviews?
Survey
173
What method of research consists of observation, participant observation, ethnography, and case studies?
Field work
174
What method of research consists of deliberate manipulation of social customs and mores?
Experiment
175
What method of research consists of analysis of government data and research of historical documents?
Secondary data analysis
176
What is Socialization?
The process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society
177
Who would say that socialization is essential to society, both because it trains members to operate successfully within it, and because it perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations?
Structural functionalists
178
Who would argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by conveying different expectations and noms to those with different social characteristics?
Conflict theorists
179
When studying socialization, who would be concerned with face-to-face exchanges and symbolic communication?
Symbolic interactionists
180
Why do sociologists need to be careful when drawing conclusions from twin studies?
Because the sample size is often small
181
From a sociological perspective, does blood type greatly influence a person's socialization?
No
182
What is the term for the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development?
Nature
183
What is the term for the role that our social environment plays in self-development?
Nurture
184
What is the name of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory related to how people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong?
Theory of Moral Development
185
What are the three levels of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development?
1) Preconventional; 2) conventional; 3) postconventional
186
During which level of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development do young children, who lack a higher level of cognigitve ability, experience the world around them only through their senses?
Preconventional
187
During which level of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development do people begin to think of morality in more complex, abstract terms?
Postconventional
188
During which level of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development do teenagers have an increasing awareness of others' feelings and begin to take those into consideration when determining what's good and bad?
Conventional
189
What term describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society's beliefs, and to be aware of social values?
Socialization
190
Who recognized that Kohlberg's theory might show gender bias since his research was only conducted on male subjects?
Carol Gilligan
191
What did Gilligan's research demonstrate?
That boys and girls do, in fact, have different understandings of morality
192
What is the term for the perspective placing emphasis on rules and laws, and who generally tends to hold this perspective?
Justice perspective, generally held by boys
193
What is the term for the perspective likely to consider a personal rationale for behavior that seems morally wrong, and who generally tends to hold this perspective?
Care and responsibility perspective, generally held by girls
194
What did Harlows' study on rhesus monkeys show?
That social comfort is more important than food
195
What did Carol Gilligan believe earlier researchers into morality had overlooked?
The perspective of females
196
What is the term for a person's distinct identity as developed through social interaction?
Self (or moral development)
197
What did George Herbert Mead believe relative to the concept of Self?
In order to engage in the process of "self", and individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others
198
What are the four stages Mead believes all people go through when developing their sense of "self"?
1) Imitation (or preparatory) stage; 2) play stage; 3) game stage; 4) generalized other
199
Which of Mead's four stages of self development includes children beginning to take on the role that another person might have (ie. acting out grownup behavior)?
Play stage
200
Which of Mead's four stages of self development includes children learning to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact with each other, they learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes?
Game stage
201
Which of Mead's four stages of self development includes children being able to imagine how he or she is viewed by others, therefore having a sense of "self"?
Generalized others
202
Which of Mead's four stages of self development includes children not having the ability to imagine how others see things, they can only copy the actions of other?
Imitation (preparatory) stage
203
What are the differences between Sociological and Psychological theories of Socialization?
1) Sociologists focus on the role of society shaping behavior, psychologists focus on how the mind influences behavior; 2) sociologists tend to look outward to understand human behavior, psychologists tend to look inward; 3) key sociological contributions by Mead, key psychological contributions by Freud
204
What is the term for the common behavioral expectations of general society?
Generalized other
205
What three things do our social interactions depend upon?
1) What type of roles we assume; 2) who we assume them with; 3) and the scene where these interactions take place
206
What is the definition of society?
A group of people who live in a defined geographical area, interact with one another, and share a common culture
207
What is the term for how any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be performed again in the future in the same manner and with the same economical effort?
Habitualization
208
What theory states "if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences", ie. people's behavior can be determined by their subjective construction of reality ran than by objective reality?
Thomas theorem
209
What is the term used to decribe how even a false idea can become true if it is acted upon?
Self-fulfilling prophecy
210
Which sociologist coined the term "self-fulfilling prophecy"?
Robert K. Merton
211
How do Symbolic Interactionists see and analyze the social construction of reality?
With theoretical perspective focused on the symbols (words, gestures, artifacts) that people use to interact, and how people interpret these symbols in daily interactions (for example, people might feel frightened if they see a person carrying a gun, unless it turns out to be a police officer); in other words, our construction of reality is influenced by our symbolic interactions and culturally specific knowledge
212
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann believed society is based upon what?
Habitual actions, that society comes to seem real due to its conventions being repeated again and again over time
213
What are the three steps in Cooley's "Looking-Glass Self" theory?
1) We see how others react to us; 2) interpret that reaction (typically as positive or negative); 3) develop a sense of self based upon those interpretations
214
What term is used to describe the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their ran and role in society?
Status
215
What makes a status "ascribed"?
A status that is not selected (such as son, elderly person, female, etc)
216
What makes something and "achieved" status?
Those which are obtained by choice (such as a high school drop out, self made millionare, nurse, etc)
217
What is the term for patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other, and that are representative of a person's social status?
Roles
218
What does one experience when too much is required of a single role?
Role strain
219
What does a person experience when one or more roles are contradictory?
Role conflict
220
What is the term for an array of roles attached to a single status?
Role-set
221
Mary works full-time at an office downtown while her young children stay at a neighbor's house. She's just learned that her childcare provider is leaving the country.Mary has succumbed to pressure to volunteer at her church, plus her ailing mother-in-law will be moving in with her next month. What is Mary likely to experience as she tries to balance her existing and new responsibilites?
Role-conflict
222
What is the term for how a person expresses his or her role?
Role performance
223
What is the idea that a person is like an actor on stage?
Dramaturgy
224
Who developed the theory of Dramaturgy?
Erving Goffman
225
What is the term for presenting ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived?
Impression managment
226
What is the term for the persona or role a person performs in public or when interacting with others?
Frontstage self
227
Paco knows women find him attractive, and he's never found it difficult to get a date. But as he ages, he dyes his hair to hide the gray and wears clothes that camouflage the weight he has put on. Paco's behavior can be best explained by what concept?
Looking-glass self
228
What can be use to recognize that individual behaviors are affected by the historical period in which they take place?
Sociological imagination
229
What is made up of people who are similar in age and social staus and who share interests?
A peer group
230
What is typically a person's earliest agent of socialization?
Family
231
What is term for social institutions of our culture who inform our socialization?
Agents of socialization
232
What are schools, workplaces and government considered in terms of socialization?
Formal institutional agents
233
What is the term for the informal teaching done by schools to socialize children to societal norms?
Hidden curriculum
234
What is the term for organizations that distribute impersonal information to a wide audience via television, newspapers, radio, and the internet?
Mass media
235
What is the term for the intended and recognized consequences of a social pattern or institution?
Manifest functions
236
According to Henig, what are the five milestones that define adulthood?
Completing school, leaving home, becoming financially independent, marrying, and having a child
237
Is infancy considered an age-related transition point when Americans must be socialized to new roles?
No
238
What is the term for the way we prepare for future life roles?
Anticipatory socialization
239
What is the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place?
Resocialization
240
What is a closed social system tha is highly regulated with strict norms, rules and schedules, and generally a single authority figure who oversees staff to carry out rule enforcement?
Total institutions
241
What is the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones?
Degradation ceremony (or status degradation ceremony)
242
What is the term for a ceremony depriving people of their former identities and dignity in order to make them more accepting of external controls (common in total institutions such as boarding schools, mental hospitals, the military, and prisons)?
Initiation rituals
243
What do sociologists do?
They examine the importance of environment to understand social behavior and human groups
244
What are tenets or convictions that people hold to be true?
Beliefs
245
What are shared beliefs, practices, and material objects of a group of people?
Culture
246
What are the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to?
Ideal culture
247
What is the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists?
Real culture
248
What are rewards or punishments for accepted behavior; a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors?
Sanctions
249
What is a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms?
Social control
250
What is a culture's standard for discerning what is good and just in society?
Values
251
What does culture consist of?
Both intangible things (like beliefs and thoughts) and tangible things
252
What is material culture?
The objects or belongings of a group of people
253
What is nonmaterial culture?
The ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society
254
The American flag is a material object that denotes the USA; however, there are certain connotations that many associate with the flag, like bravery and freedom. In this example, what are bravery and freedom?
Nonmaterial culture
255
The existance of social norms, both formal and informal, is one of the main things that inform [BLANK], otherwise known as a way to encourage and perpetuate confomity?
Social control
256
What are norms without any moral underpinnings; the direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture?
Folkways
257
What defines how to behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and important, and most members of the society adhere to them; the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured?
Norms
258
What are established, written rules?
Formal norms
259
What are casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to?
Informal norms
260
What are the norms that embody the moral views and principles of a group?
Mores
261
What is the biggest difference between two types of norms, mores and folkways?
Mores are primarily linked to morality, whereas folkways are primarily linked to commonplace practices within a culture
262
What is a symbolic system through which people communicate and through which culture is transmitted?
Language
263
What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
It is based upon the idea that people experience their world through their language, and that they therefore understand their world through the culture embedded in their language; states that language shapes thought
264
What is another term for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
Linguistic relativity
265
What are gestures, signs, signals, or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture?
Symbols
266
What is a nation's flag, which can express a range of meanings associated with a given culture?
A symbol
267
The notion that people cannot feel or experience something that they do not have a word for can be explained by [BLANK]
the Spir-Whorf thesis
268
What are patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies?
Cultural universals
269
Most cultures have been found to identify jokes as a sign of understanding and deploying humor. Likewise, most cultures recognize music in some form. Music and humor are examples of cultural [BLANK]
Universalism
270
What is evaluating and judging another culture based upon how it compares to one's own cultral norms? Involves the belief or attitutude that one's own culture is superior to others, and should therefore serve as the standard frame of reference
Ethnocentrism
271
Who coined the term "ethnocentrism"?
William Grahm Sumner
272
What is the deliberate imposition of one's own ostensibly advanced cultural values on another culuture?
Cultural imperialism
273
What is the term for when confronted with all of the differences of a new culture, one may experience disorientation and frustruation?
Culture shock
274
What is the practic e of assessing a culture by its own stnadards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture?
Cultural relativism
275
What term refers to the belief that another culture is superior to one's own culture?
Xenocentrism
276
What is the term describing the pattern of cultural experieces and attitudes that exist in the highest class of segments of a society?
High culture
277
What term refers to the pattern of the more accessible cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society?
Popular culture
278
What term refers to smaller cultural group within a larger cullture?
Subculture
279
What term refers to a type of subculture that rejects the larger culture's norms and values?
Countercultures
280
Modern day hipsters are an example of what?
Subculture
281
What is the application of science to address the problems of daily life?
Technology
282
What refers to an object or concept's initial appearance in socieity?
Invention
283
What is the term for making known previously unknown but existing aspects of reality?
Discovery
284
What is the term for the result when something is improved upon or formed from exiting objects?
Innovations
285
What refers to the time that elapses between the introduction of a new items of material culture and its acceptance as part of nonmaterial culture?
Culture lag
286
What is globalization?
Integration of international trade and finance markets
287
What is the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to the next?
Diffusion
288
What is Media Globalization?
The worldwide integration of media (all print, digital, and electronic means of communication) through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas
289
What refers to the cross-cultural development and exchange of technolgy?
Technological globalization
290
What is Media Consolidiation?
A process in which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets
291
What three dysfunctions occur as the result of media consolidation?
1) Consolidated media owes more to its stockhodlers than to the public and represent the political and social interests of only a small minority; 2) there are fewer incentives to innovate, improve services, or decrease prices; 3) cultural and ideological bias can be widespread and based on the interests of who owns the purveyors of media
292
What is the uneven access to technology among different races, classes, and geographic areas called?
Digitial divide
293
What is an ongoing and increasing gap in information for those who have less access to technology?
Knowledge gap
294
What is the ability to sort through, interpret, and process knowledge?
E-readiness
295
Which sociologists view society as a system in which all parts work together to create society as a whole?
Functionalists
296
Which sociologists view social structure as inherenently unequal, based on power differentials related to issues like class, gender, race, and age?
Conflict theorists
297
A parent secretly monitoring the babysitter through the use of GPS, site blocker, and nanny cam is a good example of what?
Panoptic surveillance
298
When all media sources report a simplified version of the environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing, with no effort to convey the hard science and complicated statistical data behind the story, [BLANK] is probably occuring
Gatekeeping
299
What is the Internet's application to and promotion of feminism online?
Cyberfeminism
300
What is the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount?
Gatekeeping
301
What is a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the subject is never communicated with directly?
Panoptic surveillance
302
Which sociologists are most concerned with the face-to-face interactions between members of society?
Symbolic interactionists
303
What is the term for people who are critical of technology and who see it as symbolizing the coldness and alienation of modern life?
Neo-Luddites
304
For whom does technology symbolize the potential for a brighter future?
Technophiles
305
What is the term for a condition wherein familiar explanatory norms seem inadequate or unavailable (ie. there is no longer the support of a firm collective consciousness)?
Anomie
306
What describes a group's shared norms (or acceptable behaviors) and values?
Culture
307
What describes a group of people who live in a defined geographical area, and who interact with one another, and share a common culture?
Society
308
What are mechanisms or patterns of social order focused on meeting social needs, such as government, economy, education, family, healthcare, and religion?
Social institutions
309
How did sociologist Gerhard Lenski, Jr. define societies?
In terms of their technological sophistication
310
What are the five categories defined by Lenski based upon technological sophistication?
1) Hunting and gathering; 2) horticultural; 3) pastoral; 4) agrarian (agricultural); 5) industrial
311
Which of Lenski's societal categories demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment and were based upon kinship or tribes?
Hunter-gatherer societies
312
Which of Lenski's societal categories began to recognize the ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants?
Pastoral societies
313
Which of Lenski's societal categories formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to grow stable crops; they were similar to hunter-gatherers in that they largely depended on the environment for survival, but were able to start permanent settlements as they didn't have to abandon thier location to follow resources?
Horticultural societies
314
Which of Lenski's societal categories relied on permanent tools for survival and made farming possible?
Agricultural societies
315
Which of Lenski's societal categories are rooted in the production of material goods?
Industrial societies
316
What is the term for societies that contained strict hierarchial systems of power based on land ownership and protection?
Feudal societies
317
What is the term for the eighteenth century dramatic rise in technological invention experienced in Europe?
Industrial Revolution
318
What is the term for post-industrial society that is based upon information and services?
Information society
319
What is the term for the communal beliefs, morals, and attittudes of a society?
Collective conscience
320
What is the term for a type of preindustrial social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture?
Mechanical solidarity
321
What is the term for a type of industrial social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences?
Organic solidarity
322
What is the term for social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion?
Social solidarity
323
What is the term for laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life?
Social facts
324
What is the term refering to the condition in which the individual is isolated and divorced from his or her society, work, or sense of self?
Alientation
325
What is the term for the condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person's own best interest?
False consciousness
326
What is the term for awareness of one's own rank in society?
Class consciousness
327
What term means a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products are owned by profit seeking individuals and companies rather than by the government?
Capitalism
328
What three areas were Weber's primary focus relative to the structure of society?
Class, status, and power
329
What term is used to describe a society built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition?
Rational society
330
What term did Weber use to describe the condition in which the individual is trapped by institutions and bureaucracy due to the culmination of industrialization and rationalization?
Iron cage
331
What does the Protestant work ethic state?
God has already chosen those who will be saved and those who will be damned (Weber thought this religious view had economic impacts in a capitalist system because believers would work harder to encourage signs of eventual salvation)
332
What is the term for large, impersonal organizations?
Formal organizations
333
What is the term for formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicity rules, and impersonality?
Bureaucracy
334
What is the term for the fact that each individual is a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform?
Division of labor
335
What is the term for organizations that people do not voluntarily join (such as prisons or mental hospitals)?
Coercive organizations
336
What is the term for types of rules in a bureaucracy, rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized?
Explicit rules
337
What is the term for a model or collection of characteristics that could describe most examples of the item under discussion?
Ideal-type
338
What is the term for the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation?
Impersonality
339
What is the term for theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration?
Iron rule of oligarchy
340
What is the term for a bureaucracy where membershipo and advancment is based upon merit - proven and documented skills?
Meritocracy
341
What is the term for an organization that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards?
Normative (or voluntary) organizations
342
What is the term for organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need?
Utilitarian organizations
343
What four characteristics do bureaucracies have?
1) Heierarchy of authority; 2) division of labor; 3) explicit rules; 4) impersonality
344
What is the term for any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned?
Group
345
What is the term for people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who do not interact or share a sense of identity?
Aggregate (or crowd)
346
What is the term for people who share similar characteristics but are not tied to each other in any way?
Category
347
What two categories did Cooley suggest that groups could broadly be divided into?
1) Primary groups; 2) secondary groups
348
What is a primary group?
Small, informal group of people who are closest to us
349
What is a secondary group?
Larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited
350
What is the term for a group function that serves an emotional need?
Expressive function
351
What is the term for a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity?
In-group
352
What is the term for a group function that is oriented toward a task or goal?
Instrumental function
353
What is the term for a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with?
Out-group
354
What is the term for groups to which an individual compares themselves?
Reference group
355
What is conformity?
The extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms
356
What is a dyad?
A two-member group
357
What is a triad?
A three-member group
358
In Asch's study on conformity, what were the two main causes of conformity?
1) People want to be liked by the group; 2) they believe the group is better informed than they are
359
What are the two main types of leadership functions?
1) Instrumental leader; 2) expressive leader
360
What is the term for a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks?
Instrumental leader
361
What is the term for a leader who is concerned with the process and ensuring everyone's emotional well being?
Expressive leader
362
What are the three main types of group leadership styles?
1) Authoritarian; 2) democratic; 3) laissez-faire
363
What is the term for a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks?
Authoritarian leader
364
What is the term for a leader who encourages group participation and consensus building before moving into action?
Democratic leader
365
What is the term for a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions?
Laissez-faire leader
366
What is the term for a situation in which people are less likely to interfere during an emergency or when a social norm is being violated if there are others around?
Bystander effect
367
What is the term for a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms?
Deviance
368
What is the term for a means of enforcing rules?
Sanctions
369
What is the term for sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced?
Formal sanctions
370
What is the term for sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions?
Informal sanctions
371
What is the term for punishments for violating norms?
Negative sanctions
372
What is the term for rewards given for conforming to norms?
Positive sanctions
373
What is the term for regulation and enforcement of norms?
Social control
374
What is the term for an arrangement or practices and behaviors on which society's members base their daily lives?
Social order
375
An expression of thanks is an example of what type of sanction?
Informal, positive sanction
376
A promotion at work is an example of what type of sanction?
Formal, positive sanction
377
A parking fine is an example of what type of sanction?
Formal, negative sanction
378
An angry comment is an example of what type of sanction?
Informal, negative sanction
379
In what three ways did Durkheim believe deviance played a positive role in society?
1) It clarifies norms and increases conformity; 2) it strengthens social bonds among people reacting to the deviant; 3) it can help lead to positive social change and challenges to people's present view
380
What is the theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society?
Social control theory
381
What theories posit that poverty and other community conditions give rise to certain subcultures through which adolescents acquire values that promote deviant behavior?
Deviant subculture theories
382
What theory asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control?
Social disorganization theory
383
What is the difference between Social Control Theory and Social Disorganization Theory?
Social control theory looks at the individual level, and social disorganization theory looks at the community level
384
What is the theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals?
Strain theory
385
What is another term for the Strain Theory?
Anomie Theory
386
Who developed the Strain Theory?
Robert Merton
387
According to Merton, what are five ways people resond to the gap between havign socially acceptable goals and the means of achieving them?
1) Conformity; 2) innovation; 3) ritualism; 4) retreatism; 5) rebellion
388
What is conformity relative to Strain Theory?
Those who conform choose not to deviate. Conformists pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially acceptable means [this is the most common option]
389
What is innovation relative to Strain Theory?
Innovators pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using crimianl or deviant means
390
What is ritualism relative to Strain Theory?
People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable means
391
What is retreatism relative to Strain Theory?
People retreat and reject society's goals and means (street beggars for example)
392
What is rebellion relative to Strain Theory?
People rebel and replace society's goals and means with their own (examples include terrorists or freedom fighters)
393
Do conformists accept or reject society's goals and means?
Societies goals: accept; means: accept
394
Do innovators accept or reject society's goals and means?
Societies goals: accept; means: reject
395
Do ritualists accept or reject society's goals and means?
Societies goals: reject; means: accept
396
Do retreatists accept or reject society's goals and means?
Societies goals: reject; means: reject
397
Do rebels accept or reject society's goals and means?
Societies goals: reject/replace; means: reject/replace
398
What did Albert K. Cohen state regarding emergence of new cultures?
The crucial condition for the emergence of new cultural forms is the existence, in effective interaction with one another, of a number of actors with similar problems of adjustment
399
Expanding upon Cohen's work, Walter Miller identified which six "focal concerns of lower-class culture"?
1) Trouble; 2) toughness; 3) smartness; 4) excitement; 5) fate; 6) autonomy
400
Who developed Social Control Theory?
Travis Hirschi
401
What four items did Hirschi suggest kept people from following a deviant path?
1) Attachment; 2) commitment; 3) involvement; 4) belief
402
What is attachment relative to Social Control Theory?
Concern for how other people might react
403
What is commitment relative to Social Control Theory?
How much they value the subject goal
404
What is involvement relative to Social Control Theory?
How invested they are in the subject goal
405
What is belief relative to Social Control Theory?
Alignment between goal and societal beliefs
406
What is the meaning of doubly deviant?
A term used to refer to females who have broken the law and gender norms
407
What is the term for what occurs when the woman's own sexual history and her willilngness to consent are questioned in the process of laying charges and reaching a conviction?
Secondary victimization
408
What are the twin myths of rape?
1) That women are untrustworthy and tend to lie about assualt out of malice toward men as a way of getting back at them for persona grievences; 2) women will say "no" to sexual relations when they really mean "yes"
409
Which sociological theory paradigm do Labeling Theory and Differential Association Theory fall under?
Symbolic interactionism
410
What is Differential Association Theory?
A theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance
411
What is Labeling Theory?
The idea that the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society affects how a person self-identifies and behaves; related to self-fulfilling prophecy
412
What two types of deviance did Edwin Lemert identify which effect identity formation?
1) Primary deviance; 2) secondary deviance
413
What is the term for a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual?
Master status
414
What is the term for a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual's self image or interactions with others?
Primary deviance
415
What is the term for a deviance that occurs when a person's self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as devaint by members of society?
Secondary deviance
416
What is Denial of Responsibility?
When someone doesn't take responsibility for their actions or blames others
417
What is Denial of Injury?
Sometimes people will look at a situation in terms of what effect it has on others
418
What is Denial of the Victim?
If there is no victim, there's no crime (person sees actions as justified or that the victim deserved it)
419
What is Condemnation of Condemners?
Taking the focus off one's own actions and putting the onus on the accuser
420
What is Appeal to a Higher Authority?
Claim that the actions were for a higher purpose
421
Is Socialization a limited/one-time process?
No, socialization is a lifelong process
422
Who developed Differential Association Theory?
Edwin Sutherlin
423
What are the nine key points of Sutherlin's Differential Association Theory?
1) Criminal behavior is learned; 2) criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication; 3) the principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups; 4) when criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes; 5) the specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable; 6) a person becomes delinquint because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law; 7) differential associationss may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity; 8) the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning; 9) while criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values
424
Relative to deviancy, what are the three main theories under the Functionalism paradigm?
1) Strain theory; 2) social disorganization theory; 3) social control theory
425
Why do Strain Theory, Social Disorganization Theory, and Social Control Theory fall under the Functionalist paradigm?
Because they all view deviance and crime as arising from societal structures and pressures, with a focus on how these factors contribute to maintaining social stability within a society
426
Who developed the Strain Theory?
Robert Merton
427
Under the Strain Theory, what does Merton theorize that deviance arises from?
A lack of ways to reach socially accepted goals by accepted methods
428
Who developed the Social Disorganization Theory?
University of Chicago researchers
429
Under Social Disorganization Theory, what is deviance theorized to arise from?
Weak social ties and a lack of social control; society has lost the ability to enforce norms with some groups
430
Who developed Social Control Theory?
Travis Hirschi
431
Under Social Control Theory, what does Hirschi theorize deviance arises from?
A feeling of disconnection from society; social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds
432
Relative to deviancy, what are the two main theories under the Conflict Theory paradigm?
1) Unequal system theory; 2) power elite theory
433
Who developed Unequal System theory?
Karl Marx
434
Under Unequal System theory, what does Marx theorize deviance arises from?
Inequalities in wealth and power that arise from the economic system
435
Who developed Power Ellite theory?
C. Wright Mills
436
Under Power Elite theory, what does Mills theorize deviance arises from?
Ability of those in power to define deviance in ways that maintain the status quo
437
Relative to deviancy, what are the two main theories under the Symbolic Ineractionism paradigm?
1) Labeling Theory; 2) Differential Association Theory
438
Who developed Labeling theory?
Edwin Lemert
439
Under Labeling theory, what does Lemert theorize deviance arises from?
The reactions of others, particularly those in power who are able to determine labels
440
Who developed Differential Association theory?
Edwin Sutherlin
441
Under Differential Association theory, what does Sutherlin theorize deviance arises from?
Learning and modeling deviant behavior seen in other people close to the individual
