Final Exam Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
What makes a contraction strong?
A
- length-tension relationship
* cross-sectional area force relationship
2
Q
What is length-tension relationship and what are two examples?
A
- length of sarcomere is directly proportional to the amount of force
- optimal overlap
- tonus via CNS
3
Q
What does the CNS maintain?
A
*tonus or basil tone or muscle tone
4
Q
What is cross-sectional are force relationship?
A
*greater the cross sectional area the greater force production
5
Q
How do muscles contract at varying strengths?
A
- twitch
* recruitment
6
Q
What are some examples of recruitment?
A
- spatial
* temperal (incomplete tetanus, and complete tetanus)
7
Q
What is spatial recruitment?
A
*is from all different regions
8
Q
What is temperal recruitment?
A
*is firing the same fiber and continue to build on top of that
9
Q
What is a twitch?
A
*a single firing of an action potention
10
Q
What is treppe?
A
*a staircase phenomenon, can build sequential muscle contractions
11
Q
What is incomplete tetanus?
A
- wave summation
- doesn’t relax all the way
- higher frequency
- need more force production
12
Q
What is complete tetanus?
A
- higher frequency
- faster
- doesn’t relax
- flatline out and fatigue
13
Q
What does force + length =?
A
*contraction
14
Q
What is isometric contraction?
A
*tension contraction with no change in length
15
Q
What is isotonic contraction?
A
*change in length
16
Q
What are the two types of isotonic contractions?
A
- concentric
* eccentric
17
Q
What is concentric?
A
*force when muscle is shortening
18
Q
What is eccentric?
A
- generating force when muscle is lengthening
* can control the length of drop (negatives)
19
Q
Where do muscles get ATP?
A
- anaerobic fermentation
* aerobic respiration (slower)
20
Q
What do muscle use for immediate demand (eg. quick sprint ~ 10secs)?
A
- myoglobin
* phosphate donations (another ADP, creatine phosphate)
21
Q
What do muscles use for short term energy?
A
- last about 30-40 seconds
- anaerobic
- glycogen-lactic acid system
22
Q
What do muscles use for long-term energy?
A
- oxygen delivery catches up
* aerobic respiration
23
Q
What do muscles do?
A
- contraction
- specialization to allow function
- cell rich
- well vascularized, elongated cells
24
Q
What is skeletal muscles?
A
- voluntary
- elongated
- multinucleated
- striated
25
What is so special about cardiac muscle?
* no nerve stimulus for contraction
* aerobic respiration
* non-mitotic
* involuntary, uninucleated, striated
26
What does autrohythmic mean and where is it found?
* have their own electrical pacemaker
* contracts on its own
* found in cardiac muscle
27
What makes smooth muscles so smooth?
* lack striation, Z discs, T tubules
* fusiform shape
* can undergo mitosis
28
Where does calcium come from?
* interstitial fluid (outside cell)
| * still has actin and myosin
29
What are some characteristics of smooth muscles?
* involuntary
* slow contraction
* uninucleated
* fusiform, no striations
30
What are the two kinds of smooth muscles?
* multi-unit
| * single-unit (visceral muscle)
31
What is multi-unit smooth muscle?
* muscle fibers that are independent of each other
| * receive their own nerve supply
32
What is single-unit (visceral muscle)?
* all the cells contract as a unit
| * most smooth muscle operate under this
33
How are smooth muscles stimulated?
* can contract without nerve stimulus
| * has ANS innervations (varicosities, diffuse junctions)
34
How do smooth muscles contract?
* calcium gates on PM (voltage, ligane, and mechanically regulated)
* calmodulin
35
What is an example of a ligand-regulated calcium regulated gate?
*hormones
36
What is an example of a mechanically- regulated calcium gate?
*stretch relfex
37
What is calmodulin?
* Ca binds to this
| * moves and exposes actin binding sites
38
What are the characteristics of smooth muscles contractions?
* long latent period
* slow contraction
* slow relaxation
39
What are slow muscles fibers?
* AKA (red muscle, slow oxidative, type I fibers)
* sloe, long twitch (fire slowly)
* smaller in diameter
* more mitochondria, myoglobin, capillaries
40
Why do slow muscle fibers have more mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillaries?
*to generate more ATP, increase blood flow that carries oxygen
41
What are fast muscle fibers/
* fast, short twitch (larger)
* AKA (white muscle, fast glycolytic fibers, type II fibers)
* fast fatigue
* creatin-phosphate, glycogen-lactic acid pathways
42
How do muscles adapt to exercise?
* muscle cells hypertrophy (get larger)
* red muscle adds more mitochondria, myoglobin
* heart hypertrophies
43
Why do muscles fatigue?
* explanations include leakage of calcium into sarcoplasm (lose control over Ca)
* no more glucose/glycogen
* ATP shortage
* release of K lowers excitability, no more Ach
44
Why do I keep breathing heavy after I stop running?
* oxygen debt (lactic acid -> pyruvic acid)
* replacing oxygen reserves
* myoglobin/hemoglobin
* replenish (creatine phosphate, AMP to ATP)
45
What is a receptor and give an example?
* structure which detects a stimulus
| * nerve endings
46
What is a sense organ?
* nerve ending + tissues
| * tissues enhance/moderate response to stimulus
47
What is a sensory receptor?
*a structure specialized to detect a stimulus
48
What are some examples of sensory receptors?
* bare nerve endings
| * true sense organs
49
What are true sense organs?
*nerve tissue surrounded by other tissues that enhance response to a certain type of stimulus
50
What are some general properties of receptors?
* transduction
* receptor potential
* sensation
51
What is transduction?
*the conversion of one form of energy to another
52
What is a receptor potential?
* small, local electrical change on a receptor cell brought about by an initial stimulus
* electrical impulse, or difference in charge
53
What is the result of a receptor potential?
*results in release of neurotransmitter or a volley (bunch) of action potentials that generates nerve signals to the CNS
54
What is sensation?
* a subjective awareness of the stimulus
| * most sensory signals delivered to the CNS produce no conscious sensation (filtered out in brainstem)
55
What are general senses?
*found in all different parts of the body
56
What are special senses?
*located in the head
57
What are the four kinds of information sensory receptors transmit?
* modality
* location
* intensity
* duration
58
What is modality?
*type of stimulus of the sensation it produces
59
What is the labeled line code?
*all action potential are identical. each nerve pathway from sensory cells to the brain is labeled to identify its origin, and the brain uses these labels to interpret what modality the signal represents
60
What is location?
*encoded by which nerve fibers are issuing signals to the brain
61
What is a receptive field?
* area that detects stimuli for a sensory neuron
| * vary in size
62
What is a sensory projection?
*brain identifies site of stimulation
63
What is a projection pathway?
*the pathways followed by sensory signals to their ultimate destination in the CNS
64
What are the three ways intensity is encoded?
* which fibers are sending signals
* how many fibers are doing so
* how fast these fibers are firing
65
What is duration?
* how long the stimulus lasts
| * change in firing frequency over time
66
What is sensory adaptation?
*if stimulus is prolonged, the firing of the neuron gets slower over time, and we become less aware of the stimulus
67
What are phasic receptors?
*generate a burst of action potentials when first stimulated, then quickly adapt and sharply reduce or stop signaling even though the stimulus continues
68
What are tonic receptor?
*adapt slowly, generate nerve signals more steadily
69
What are proprioceptors?
*body position, muscle tension, and joint motion
70
How are receptor classified by modality?
*thermoeceptors, photreceptors, nociceptors, chemoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors
71
What are some mechanoreceptors?
*touch and pressure receptors
72
How are receptors classified by origin of stimuli?
* exxteroceptors
* interoceptors
* proprioceptors
73
Muscle spindles and tendon organs are examples of?
*proprioceptors
74
What are unencapsulated nerve endings?
* dendrites not wrapped in connective tissues
* free nerve endings
* tactile discs
* hair receptors
75
What are free nerve endings for?
* pain and temperature
| * skin and mucous membrane
76
What are tactile discs for?
* for light touch and texture
| * associated with Markel cells at base of epidermis
77
What are hair receptors for?
* wrap around base hair follicle
| * monitor movement of hair
78
What kinds of receptors make up the general senses?
*unencapsulated nerve endings
79
What are encapsulated nerve endings?
*dendrites wrapped by glial cells or connective tissue
80
What does connective tissue do?
*enhances sensitivity or selectivity of response
81
What are some examples of encapsulated nerve endings?
* tactile (meissner) corpuscles
* Krause end bulbs
* lamellar (pacinian) corpuscles
* Bulbous (Ruffini) corpuscles
82
What are tactile (Meisser) corpuscles for?
* light touch and texture
| * dermal papillae of hairless skin
83
What Krause end bulbs?
* tactile
| * in mucous membrane
84
What are Lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles for?
* phasic
* deep pressure, stretch, tickle, vibration
* periosteum of bone, and deep dermis of skin
85
What are Bulbous (Ruffini) corpuscles?
* tonic
| * heavy touch, pressure, joint movements, and skin stretching
86
What is pain?
*discomfort caused by tissue injury or noxious stimulation, and typically leading to evasive action
87
Why is pain important?
*helps protect us
88
What is diabetic neuropathy?
* lost in diabetes mellitus
* They have a pathology of the nerves in the lower limbs
* you have too much sugar in blood which damages blood vessels
* lose the ability to detect pain
89
What are the two nociceptors for pain sensation?
* fast pain
| * slow pain
90
What is fast pain?
* travels myelinated fibers at 12 to 30m/s
| * sharp, localized, stabbing pain perceived with injury
91
What is slow pain?
* travels unmyelinated fibers at 0.5 to 2m/s
| * longer-lasting, dull, diffuse feeling
92
What is somatic pain?
*from skin, muscles, and joins
93
What is visceral pain?
* from viscera
| * stretch, chemical irritants, or ischemia of viscera (poorly localized)
94
What is the most potent pain stimulus known?
*Bradykinin
95
Injured tissues release chemical that stimulate what?
* pain fibers
| * this promotes healing
96
What chemicals also stimulate nociceptors?
*histamine, prostaglandin, and serotonin
97
What are the three neurons that most somesthetic signals travel by?
* first order neuron
* second order neuron
* third order neuron
98
What are the two main pain pathways to the brain?
* pain signals from head
| * gracile fasiculus carries visceral pain signals
99
What are the three ascending tracts that pain signals travel by from the neck down?
* spinothalamic tract
* spinoreticular tract
* gracile fasciculus
100
What is the most significant pain pathway?
*spinothalamic tract
101
What pain tract carries pain signals to reticular formation?
*spinoreticular tract
102
What pain tract carries signals to the thalamus for visceral pain?
*gracile fasciculus
103
What is referred pain?
*pain in viscera often mistakenly thought to come from the skin or other superficial sites
104
Why do we get referred pain?
*it is a result from convergence of neural pathways in CNS
105
What do damaged tissues secrete? And what does that stimulate?
* bradykinin
| * nociceptors
106
What is fast (first) pain receptors?
*sharp, stabbing pain
107
What is slow (second) pain receptors?
*dull, diffuse pain
108
CNS has what mechanisms?
*analgesic (pain relieving)
109
Third-order neurons of somatic sensory pathway project?
*from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex
110
What are the four lingual papillae?
* filiform
* foliate
* fungiform
* vallate
111
What papillae has no taste buds and is important for food texture?
*filiform
112
What papillae has no taste buds and is weakly developed in humans?
*foliate
113
What papillae is at the tips and sides of the tongue?
*fungiform
114
What papillae is at the rear of the tongue and contains one half of all taste buds?
*vallate
115
What are stem cells that replace taste cells every 7 to 10 days?
*basal cells
116
What resemble taste cells without taste hairs, synaptic vesicles, or sensory role?
*supporting cells
117
To be tasted molecules must be what?
*dissolved and flood the taste pore
118
What are the primary sensations?
* salty
* sweet
* sour
* bitter
* umami
119
What sensation is produced by metal ions?
*salty
120
What sensation is associated with carbohydrates and other foods of high caloric value?
*sweet
121
What sensation is acids such as citrus fruits?
*sour
122
What sensation is associated with spoiled foods and alkaloids?
*bitter
123
What sensation is a meaty taste of amino acids?
*umami
124
What nerve is from the posterior one third of the tongue?
*glossopharyngeal
125
What nerve is from the taste buds of palate, pharynx, and epiglottis?
*vagus
126
What nerve collects sensory information from taste buds over anterior two thirds of the tongue?
*facial
127
What are the two destinations signals are sent out to?
* hypothalamus
| * thalamus
128
What is the hypothalamus for?
*autonomic reflexes (gagging, vomiting)
129
What are hydrophilic odorant molecules?
*they diffuse through mucus
130
What are hydrophobic odorant molecules?
*transported by odorant-binding protein in mucus
131
What is a response to vibrating air molecules?
*hearing
132
What is the sense of motion, body orientation, and balance?
*equilibrium
133
What is pitch?
*frequency of sound
134
What is pitch measured in?
*Hz
135
What is loudness?
*intensity/amplification of vibration
136
What is loudness measured in?
*decibels
137
What are some parts of the middle ear?
* tympanic membrane (ear drum)
* auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
* Eustachian tube
138
What are some parts of the inner ear?
* bony oval window
| * bony labyrinth (membranous labyrinth, perilymph, vestibule)
139
What is responsible for hearing?
*cochlea
140
What is responsible for balance?
*vestibule
141
What does perilymph have similar consistency to?
*extracellular fluid (Na rich)
142
What does endolymph have similar consistency to?
*intracellular fluid (K rich)
143
How do we hear?
* sound reaches tympanic membrane
* vibrates oval window
* eventually vibrates basilar membrane
144
What does the stapes push on?
*perilymph of scala vestibuli
145
What is the protein that connects each sterocilia?
*tip link
146
What part of the brain distinguishes high frequency of pitch?
* proximal (basal) end
147
What part of the brain distinguishes low frequency sounds?
*distal (apical) end
148
What is conductive hearing loss?
* occurs when sound waves do not reach the inner ear
| * treatable
149
What is otosclerosis?
* stiffening of bone
* most common in older people
* common cause of conduction deafness
150
What is sensorineuronal deafness?
* irreversible
| * occurs when sound waves are not processed correctly
151
What vestibular apparatus is for angular acceleration?
*semicircular ducts
152
What vestibular apparatus is for linear acceleration of static equilibrium?
*saccule and utricle
153
What parts make up the eye?
* tunics (covering)
* optical apparatus
* neural apparatus
154
What visual pigments are found in rods?
*rhodopsin
155
What visual pigment are found in cones and what are the three types?
* photopsin
| * red, blue, green
156
What visual pigment is for night and which is for day?
*rods, and cones
