Final Exam Flashcards

Question

Describe the characteristics of the family Hominoidea

Answer 1

Suborder: Haplorhini Infraorder: Anthropoidae Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Hominoidea Apes and Humans differ from the previously mentioned species by the following characteristics: 1. Larger body size 2. Two (2) premolars 2123/2123) 3. No tail 4. Short trunk 5. Arms that are longer than legs (not humans) 6. Shoulder modifications 7. More complex behaviour 8. More complex brain “Great Apes” Three Subfamilies Two Tribes Four Genera Have anatomy suited for brachiating, but also spend time traveling, feeding on the ground Orangutans tend to be solitary with overlapping male-female ranges Gorillas live in societies comprising one fully adult male & multi-females Chimps live in large, fluid social groups

Answer 2

Fossil: remains of organisms transformed into rock through chemical replacement Various factors affect the production & preservation of fossils: decay, groundwater, pressure, scavenger activity, geological activity, etc. Taphonomy: study of what happens to remains between death and discovery Must keep in mind that the fossil record is incomplete

Answer 3

Must reconstruct relationship: * Between past species * Between past and present species This is done based on shared traits Homology: shared trait due to common ancestry – reflects relationship Analogy: shared trait due to convergence Cladistics: The field that seeks to identify and interpret groups that share common ancestry

Answer 4

Must look at: * Ancestral (primitive) traits: * Characters inherited by a group of organisms from a remote ancestor; not diagnosticof the evolutionary lineage * Derived (modified) traits: * Characters that are modified from the ancestral condition; diagnostic of the evolutionary lineage

Answer 5

A group of organisms that share a common ancestor - Includes the common ancestor and all the descendants

Answer 6

A chart showing evolutionary relationships based on shared derived traits * No time component and does not imply ancestor-descendant relationships

Answer 7

1. Arboreal Hypothesis * Sir Grafton Elliot Smith and Frederic Wood Jones * That primates’ unique suite of traits is an adaptation to life in the trees * e.g., Grasping hands and feet were crucial for holding on to tree branches 2. Visual Predation Hypothesis * Matt Cartmill * "The proposition that primates’ unique set of traits arose as adaptations to preying on insects and on small animals” e.g., * 3D vision for finding prey * Grasping hands to catch it * Arboreal or terrestrial habitat 3. Angiosperm Radiation Hypothesis * Robert Sussman * Certain primate traits in response to the availability of fruit and flowers following the spread of angiosperms * e.g., vision was required in dark forests

Answer 8

~90 mya during the Cretaceous period? Earliest definite primate fossils date to the Eocene (~55 mya) Possible explanations for gap in record/time: 1. Fossils may be ‘out there’ 2. “Right” species may not have preserved 3. DNA analysis may be producing wrong date (i.e., too early) 4. We may not be recognizing early primates —they do not have the classic primate traits First monkey appeared in the Oligocene epoch 34mya First primate appeared in the Eocene epoch 55 mya

Answer 9

* Plesiadapiform in Paleocene epoch 65mya relate to Adapoids and Omomyoids in Eocene epoch 55-34mya * Omoyoids in Eocene epoch relate to Parapithecidae, Oligopithecidea and Propoliopithecidea in Oligocene epoch 34-23mya * Miocene "Proto-Apes" appeared between 23-5 mya * Mostly in Africa * Best known genus is Proconsul (20-18 mya) * Miocene Hominoids * Kenyapithecus * Gigantopithecus * Pierolapithecus * Sivapithecus(12–8 mya) * Primarily in Western and Southern Asia * Thick enamel, ate seeds and nuts * Once thought to be ancestral to orangutans * Dryopithecus(12–8 mya) * Primarily in Europe * Thick tooth enamel and lighter jaws * Ancestor to apes and humans? * Oreopithecus(8-7 mya) * Primarily in Europe * Relatively long arms * Dentition specialized for eating leaves * “dead end”

Answer 10

1. Cranial Variation * Encephalization * Reduction of snout * Increase in size of orbits * Postorbital bar vs. postorbital septum/plate * Crests (diet & locomotion): * Sagittal * Nuchal * Position of the foramen magnum * Zygomatic arch and zygomatic flare * Prognathism 2. Variation in Dentition * Variation based on DIET * Dental comb vs. absent (note: not dietary) * Mandible shape: * Fused vs unfused (mandibular symphysis) * V vs U vs parabolic * Dental formulae: * Variable vs. 2133 vs. 2122 * Tooth size and shape: * Canine reduction * Sectorial premolars * First to second to third molar relative size * Bilophodont vs. Y5 molars * Thickness of dental enamel 3. Variation in Limbs * Limb proportions * Upper vs. lower limb * Hand vs. foot * Fingers vs. toes * Divergent or in-line big toes * Talus length * Tails or lack thereof 4. Variation in Pelvis

Answer 11

1. Occasional bipedalism * Is practiced sometimes/occasionally * Seen with nonhuman apes; used when carrying objects but still primarily adapted for knucklewalking 2. Habitual bipedalism * Is practiced regularly or habitually * Early hominins; have some selectively favouredadaptations for bipedalism but also for arboreal climbing 3. Obligate bipedalism * Is practiced all the time * Us and all of our ancestors since Homo erectus; have no other realistic locomotor options

Answer 12

1. Repositioning of the foramen magnum —forward 2. Spinal curves 3. Pelvis is basin-shaped (already discussed) 4. Lower limbs are elongated 5. Femur is angled –valgus knee 6. Changes in the foot * Enlarged big toe * Longitudinal arch

Answer 13

ADVANTAGES 1. Freeing of the hands * Prolonged infant care * Food carrying or provisioning activities * Tool use 2. Elevate head * Visibility in open grasslands 3. Energetic advantages * Long distance, slow walking * Improved heat regulation 4. Mating advantage? DISADVANTAGES (COSTS) Lower body stresses * Knee, hip, and lower back pain

Answer 14

1.Darwin’s Hunting Hypothesis * Argument 1: the four characteristics (see Figure 10.12) that distinguish living humans from living apes derive from one key evolutionary event in their common ancestor –the shift from life in the trees to life on the ground * Argument 2: advantage of bipedalism is it freed the hands for carrying weapons –could obtain meat by hunting * Needed intelligence to produce and to use tools * Did not need large canines for hunting or for defense * Problems: bipedalism easily predates use of tools and expansion of the brain * So hunting important in later evolution (maybe) but not early evolution 2.Peter Rodman and Henry McHenry’s Patchy Forest Hypothesis * Argument 1: Bipedalism is advantageous because of the greater efficiency in certain habitats of walking on two versus four feet * Argument 2: Bipedalism arose in areas where the forest was becoming fragmented (recall: Miocene climate change) * Argument 3: As forests fragmented, bipedalism freed the hands to pick up food allowing for both tree and ground food resources to be exploited * Problem: Kindasupported by fossil record but not quite correct; other primates do just fine in fragmented forests without obligate bipedalism 3.Owen Lovejoy’s Provisioning Hypothesis * Argument 1: Freeing the hands was important in allowing males to assist females more efficiently in procuring food; thus “provisioning” acted as a form of sexual competition among males for females * Argument 2: Birth spacing would also be reduced, since females would have to move around less and would have access to greater food resources * Argument 3: Monogamous fathers who no longer need large canines to have access to females or to fight * Problem: Still see sexual dimorphism 4.Aquatic Ape Theory (AAT) or rather “Waterside Hypotheses” * “Assert that wading, swimming and diving for food have acted as an agency of selection in the evolution of human beings more than it has in the evolution of our ape cousins both before (and hence causing) the split between these lineages and after. It notes that even very slight levels of selection can still result in profound and rapid phenotypic changes.” Kuliukas(2015) –www.riverapes.com * Pretty contentious but exploitation of river and ocean resources seems to have been really critical for the origin of Homo sapiens

Answer 15

1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis * 6 –7 mya * Toros-Menalla, Chad * discovered by Michel Brunet & colleagues * Partial cranium, no postcranial - 350 cc * Massive brow ridge * Nonhoningcanine * Foramen magnum (bipedal?) * losest common ancestor to chimps? * Diverse animal species associated with forests and grasslands near a lake 2. Orrorin tugenensis * 5.8 –6 mya * TugenHills, Western Kenya * Discovered by Brigitte Senutand and Martin Pickford * 19 specimens of jaw, teeth, finger, arm, and leg bones * Femur and tibia: bipedal * Curved phalanx * Nonhoningcanines * Forest 3. Ardipithecus ramidus and Ar. kadabba * 5.8 –4.4 mya * Aramis, Ethiopia * Discovered by Tim White et al. * 1994: jaw fragment & miscellaneous teeth (Ar. ramidus) * 2004: 45% complete skeleton, teeth, cranial, and upper limb bone fragments (Ar. kadabba) * 2009: “Ardi” the Breakthrough of the Century * Two species: * Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) * Similar skull to other pre-Australopiths * 350cc * Projecting face * Very long forearm to upper arm * Long curved phalanges * Full hominin pelvis (!!!) * Limb and foot adapted for bipedalism * Elongated toes * Divergent big toe * Ardipithecus kadabba

Answer 16

Diverse group of early hominins: * Dates range from 4.2 to 1 mya * Brain not much larger than modern apes * Cranium, mandible, and teeth are more lightly built than earlier hominins * But teeth are larger with very thick enamel versus modern humans * Variation in robusticity(Gracile vs. Robust) * All clearly bipedal (but not identical to humans) Share hominid characteristics of: * Small, non-honing canines * Flat and thickly enamelled molars * Parabolic dental arch * Slight increase in cranial capacity Bipedal * Some cranial & postcranial adaptations * Footprints * 3.6 mya, Laetoli, Tanzania BUT…partially arboreal * Some retention of arboreal adaptations in upper limb & shoulder

Answer 17

* 4.2 -3.9 mya * Most primitive of the genus * Discovered by Meave Leakey, Carol Ward, & Alan Walker * -anam: “Lake” in Turkana language * Lake Turkana region, Kenya * Mosaic of ape and hominin traits * Similar to Ardipithecus * Hominin characteristics: * Slightly reduced canines * Thick molar enamel * Bipedal skeleton * Ape -like characteristics: * U-shaped mandible with parallel rows * Large canines with CP3 honing complex * Curved phalanges * Habitual biped * Associated with woodland environments

Answer 18

* 3.9 -2.9 mya * Four main sites in Ethiopia and Tanzania * Laetoli, Tanzania * Hadar, KorsiDora, & Dikika, Afar region Ethiopia * Most well-known hominin * More than 300 individuals * Mosaic of traits: * Pelvis indicative of bipedalism * Shoulder similar to modern humans but scapula retains some arboreal adaptation (Figure 10.28) * Phalanges same length as modern humans but curved like pre-australopiths(Figure 10.27) * Ape-like cc (~430) * Lucy * found in Hadar, Ethiopia * by Don Johansen & team * AL-388 * Young female, ~3 feet tall * 40% complete * Bipedal * Anteriorly placed foramen magnum * Flared ilium * Angled femur * Laetoli Footprints * found in Tanzania * by Mary Leakey & team * 1 to 2 adults and one juvenile * Evidence of bipedalism * Nondivergent big toe * Rounded heels * Double arches * Evidence of sexual dimorphism * The Dikika Child * The skull of this 3.3mya, 3 year old A. afarensiswas found in 2000 * It took six more years for the rest of her skeleton to be recovered * Sex estimation based on molar crown measurements * Her remains include a modified ape-like hyoid bone which supports the vocal tract and is an important indicator of the potential capacity for sound production

Answer 19

* 3.5 –2 mya * South Africa * Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat * found by Raymond Dart and Robert Broom * Type specimen: Taung child * Characterized by: * Fully bipedal * Less prognathic face * 450 cc◦ * Reduced canines, parabolic dental arcade * Nasal pillars and a rounded vault * No tools * Taung Child * Raymond Dart’s discovery was the face of a 3-4 year old child, with an endocast (internal cast) of the back of the skull which was missing * The foramen magnum is farther under the skull than in the great apes, but not as much as in modern humans * The brain was quite small, so the child may have belonged to a population where adults weighed a maximum of 80lbs

Answer 20

* 3.5 –3 mya, * Found in Chad * First hominin found outside of East African Rift Valley * Partial mandible and maxilla

Answer 21

Kenyanthropus platyops * 3.5 mya * found at Lomekwi (Lake Turkana), Kenya * by Meave Leakey * Woodland habitat * Nearly complete skull * Smaller and unusually flatter face * Smaller molars

Answer 22

* 2.5 mya * found in Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia * by Berhane Asfaw * Similar to, but definitely not, any of other australopithecines * Cranial and postcranial fragments, and teeth * Larger teeth than earlier australopith * Limb proportion ratio more similar to humans * First tool maker & user ?! * Bones with cut and percussion marks (Figure 10.34) * No other early hominins at this site * Range of variation? * Adaptation?

Answer 23

* A. sediba * 1.95 –1.78 mya * found in South Africa * 2 partial skeletons * found by Lee Berger 2010 * Descended from A. africanus * Derived Homo-like morphology * Ancestral to Homo

Answer 24

As a group: * Chewing adaptations * Thicker jaws * Larger molars and premolars * Massive muscle attachment areas (crests) * but not substantially different in postcranial (so just Australopithecus then…) * NOT our relatives * Three species * Australopithecus robustus * Australopithecus boisei * Australopithecus aethiopicus

Answer 25

* 2.6 –2.3 mya * Northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia * Ancestral to A. boisei * Hyper -robust * Flared zygomatics, prognathic, sagittal, and nuchal crests * Black skull * (KNM-WT 17000) * 2.5 mya * 410 cc

Answer 26

* 2.3 –1.1 mya * found in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) * by Louis and Mary Leakey * Zinjor Nutcracker Man (OH5) * Tool maker ? * Tools in same strata at Olduvai * Pronounced sexual dimorphism * Characterized by: * ~525 cc * Dished face * Flared zygomatics * Massive chewing apparatus * Large mandible * Large premolars and molars * Sagittaland nuchal crests

Answer 27

* 2.8 –1 mya * found in South Africa * by Robert Broom * Omnivore * Tools ? * Characterized by: * ~525 cc * Dished face * Flared zygomatics * Massive chewing apparatus * Large premolars and molars * Sagittaland nuchal crests

Answer 28

* First tools recovered in East Africa - Earliest at Gona, Ethiopia 3.5 mya - Most date to around 2.5 mya - Australopithecines? * Oldowan - 2.6 million - 1.7 mya - chopping and scraping tools * Acheulean - 1.7mya - 200,000 ya - large cutting tools * Mousterian - 200,000 - 40,000 ya - Flakes struck from cores * Aurignacian and others - 40,000 - 12,000 ya - Rectangular flakes * Various - 12,000 - 7,000 ya - Small, geometric flakes

Answer 29

* First member of the genus Homo identified was Homo habilis * 2.5 –1.8 mya * East and South Africa * discovered by Louis Leakey, Philip Tobias, John Napier * Contemporary of Au. boisei, Au. robustus, Au. sediba, H. erectus/ergaster, H. georgicus * They were successful because of key adaptations * Tool use (see increase in brain size, decrease in tooth size; tools more common in sites) * Meat eaters * Flexibility (diversification of landscape easily exploited by new tools & more generalized dentition) * Compared to Au. africans they: * had a larger brain * less post-orbital constriction * back teeth smaller relative to front teeth * thicker cranial bone * smaller face relative to cranium

Answer 30

Homo habilis vs Homo rudolfensis * brain size 500cc vs 775cc * smaller check teeth vs larger australopithecine like teeth (H. habilis reduction of molars and premolars) * longer upper limbs to lower limbs with an australopithecinelike body for H.habilis vs more human-like limb proportions for H. rudolfensis * H. rudolfensis has a broader face

Answer 31

* 1.8 mya – 300 kya (As late as 100 kya in Asia) * Only descendant taxon of early Homo (H. habilis) * Great diversity/variability anatomically AND geographically (moved out of Africa and into Asia) * Just H. erectus or H. erectus AND H. ergasterAND/OR others… * Why they expanded is debated * were they an advanced culture with more modern anatomy * problem, however, is the Dmanisi material is not modern and did not have the brain for an advanced culture * OR was it an ecological expansion * climate range around 1.8 - 1,6 mya altered the range of animals * though that H. erectus followed them

Answer 32

Despite diversity, some typical traits can be identified in the cranium & postcranium: * Cranium * Pronounced ridges, sloping forehead, receding chin * Smaller more vertical face * Smaller teeth * Postcraniummore similar to modern humans than to early Homo * Larger body size * Modern proportions (short upper limbs, long lower limbs)

Answer 33

1. increased height 2. modern limb proportions 3. narrow pelvis 4. overall trunk shape 5. reduced sexual dimorphism 6. expansion of brain 7. reduced face and dentition

Answer 34

Homo erectus may represents two (2) contemporaneous species? 1. Homo ergaster * Thinner vault bones * Smaller supraorbitaltorus and occipital torus * Lack of sagittalkeel (vault more rounded, less obviously pentagonal) 2. Homo erectus * Traits discussed on other slides Division into H. erectus and H. ergaster argued on basis of (slight) anatomical differences between African and Asian specimens * The best preserved, oldest hominin fossils from outside Africa have been found at Dmanisiin the Georgian Republic of eastern Europe and date to 1.75 mya * Five skulls - Dmanisi hominins were not typical of the tall-standing, big brained Homo erectus-instead they were short (4’ tall), long-armed, small-brained, thin browed * They used only very basic chopping and cutting tools and there is no evidence for the use of fire

Answer 35

1. Acheulian Tool Tradition * Earliest finds in Tanzania at 1.5 mya * Latest finds date to 200-150 kya (Africa) * Latest finds in Europe until 100 kya * Bifaces * Mental models * Template ? = symmetry, standardization * Possible ritual, symbolic meaning * Especially later Acheulian handaxes * Symbolic status/ status based upon ability within hominid social groups 2. Big Game Eating * Evidence at some Acheulian sites in the form of large animal bones and tools, but, does the association mean anything? * Some think that Homo erectus was more of a scavenger and not a big game hunter * Regardless, they ate big game and most likely hunted for smaller game * Olorgesailie, Kenya –evidence for killing and processing animal remains * Schöningen, Germany - 400,000 year old spruce spears is evidence for systematic hunting - cooperation (& communication) inferred * Boxgrove, Torralba, Ambronasites - Cooperative hunting, Seasonal rounds, Flexible social groups 3. Control of Fire * Cold * Making some foods edible * Hardened spear tips * Deliberately set by Homo erectus? * They would have needed some type of clothing * WonderwerkCave, South Africa - Earliest evidence for controlled fire use 4. Language * Skeletal evidence * Remodeling of the brain * Studying endocasts * A preserved, fossilized relief of a brain * Similar to our brain or to apes? 5. Other Ritual Evidence * Bodo site in Ethiopia * Cut marks around eye socket on cranium * Possible ritual defleshing of cranium * Simade los Huesos, Atapuerca, Spain * Deliberate, ritual burial * BerekhatRam, Israel * Possible female figure in volcanic scoria * 230 kya (late Acheulian)

Answer 36

Three theories 1. Expensive tissue hypothesis * higher quality diet leads to more cocomplexoraging behaviour and a larger brain, smaller gut reduced bulk more rapid assimilation 2. Cooking hypothesis * suggested by Richard Wrangham * Emphasizes the connection between H. erectus and fire * Cooking as the defining feature of humanity * Evidence: * Ethnographic: NO population EVER documented living entirely on raw food * Zoological: Only humans do not seem to thrive on a 100% raw food diet * Adaptive consequences of cooking: * Nutritional and health benefits * Anatomical changes * Changes in life history variables (slow growth but FAST reproduction including reduced weaning and interbirthinterval) * Behaviouraland cognitive changes (including support for children and elderly, protection against predators, etc.) * Evidence for adaptive benefits: * Cooking increased energy obtainable from most foods (net energy gain) * Cooking decreases metabolic “digestive costs” (net energy gain) * Cooking decreases metabolic “immune costs” against pathogens, toxins, etc. * Think about risk of supermarket chicken containing bacteria (including salmonella) * Cooking increases “dry weight” food consumption (i.e., less water in food) 3. Endurance running hypothesis * possible endurance running adaptations in human * arguments for the endurance running hypothesis * humans perform well at endurance running compared to other primates * enables persistent hunting and strategic scavenging * wider range of running speeds as upright body decoupled respiration from running gait

Answer 37

Excavated in 2013 and 2014 * Rising Star Expedition; announced 10 September 2015 * Found by cavers (Rick Hunter & Steven Tucker); recovered by team led by Lee Berger * Naledi= star in Sotho language * DATES: 335-236 KYA (!!!) * Homo features * Humanesque skull * The general shape of H. nadeli's skull is genearlly advanced but braincase is less than half the size of a modern human's * verstalile hands * palms, wrists and thumbs are humanlike suggesting use of tools * long legs * leg bones are long and slender and have strong muscle attachment characteristic of modern bipedal gait * Humanlike feet * Except for the slightly curved toes, feet are nearly indistinguished from ours with arches that suggest a long distance stride * Australopithecine features * Primitive shoulders * H. naledi's shoulders are positioned in a way that would help with climbing and hanging * Flared pelvis * The hip bones of H. naledi flare outward - a primitive trait - and are shorter front to back than those of humans * Curved fingers * Long, curved fingers, useful for climbing trees, could be a trait retained from ape-like ancestors

Answer 38

The spectacle of the Rising Star Expedition & the dark side of palaeoanthropology **The good:** * The power of social media in doing public archaeology/science * Open access: excavation, analysis, publishing, fossils (3D files), images, etc. * Debate over the ritual nature (or not) of the burials * Berger et al (incl. John D. Hawks) –deliberate placement in the cave after death by individuals of same species who were capable of ritual behaviour * Others = skeptical; risk of assigning “complex social organization and symbolic behaviours” to fossil assemblages * Debate over the classification * Jeffrey H. Schwartz –too variable to represent a single species * Christopher Stringer and Tim White –more similar Homo erectus(small bodied variants like Dmanisi) **The bad:** * Critiques of excavation team (sexism in the academy, in the sciences) * Critique of rapid analysis, publication (peer review?), and constant media spotlight

Answer 39

* Premodern Humans first appear in the Middle Pleistocene (900–125 kya) * Some persist into the Late Pleistocene(125–10 kya) * Pleistocene? (aka Ice Age) * Glacial: Ice cover in Northern Eurasia; Africa is dry * Interglacial: No ice cover in Eurasia; Africa Wet * Hominins affected by changes in climate, fauna, and flora

Answer 40

In most areas, premodern humans succeeded H. erectus, but in some places (like Java) they may have coexisted for 300,000 years * Smaller teeth and jaw, larger brain, smaller more gracile skull, and more vertical nose than H. erectus * Large, prognathic face and teeth, brow ridge, low, rounded skull compared to H. sapiens * Later premodern shave even larger brains than earlier ones * Numerous possible species but debated * Archaic Homo sapiens (H. heidelbergensis) * Homo antecessor * Homo floresiensis * Late Archaic humans * Homo neanderthalensis

Answer 41

Best known sites in Africa and Europe * European sites include: * Swanscombein England * Aragoin France * Steinheimin Germany * Atapuercaregion in Spain * Homo antecessor? * African sites include: * Bodo in Ethiopia * Kabwein Zambia * Several sites have also been found in Asia * Ngandonin Java * Narmada, Madhya Pradesh, India * Dali, ShaanziProvince, China

Answer 42

Acheulian tool tradition continues * Bose, China (800kya) * GesherBenotYa’akov, Israel (780kya) * Boxgrove, England (500kya) Some later groups used the Levallois technique (Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic culture) Several changes to more ‘modern’ culture seen: * Apparent use of fire * Simple shelters * Wider range of foods * Large animals hunted

Answer 43

Premoderns with faces which are large, with projecting brow ridges, low foreheads, and in some cases thick craniums Key traits include: * Large brain * More globular brain case * Arching, heavy supraorbital torus * Occipital torus * Low forehead

Answer 44

Sites are slightly earlier than, or contemporary with that of Chinese H. erectus populations: * Gran Dolena& Atapuerca, Spain (850-780 kya) * Monte Poggiolo, Iserniala Pineta, and Ceprano, Italy (~800 kya) These hominids were once grouped with H. erectus, but some would give them their own species name H. antecessor * Possibly ancestral to Neanderthals or suggested common ancestor of archaic & modern H. sapiens Key site is Gran Dolina, Atapuerca, Spain * First European settlement 800 kya * 36 human bones: * 4 individuals, including 1 adolescent & 1 child

Answer 45

Discovered in Liang Bua Cave on Indonesian island of Flores (2003) * ~1m (3ft) tall * Fully bipedal * Cranial capacity ~380 cc * Fossils date: * 100-60kya * Archaeological dates: * 190-50 kya * Similar to that found with H. erectus species JUNE 2016: New fossils from Mata Mengesite, Flores * More primitive and smaller than Liang Bua specimens * Date to 700 kya * Argue still likely related to H. erectus but may be from earlier migrants!

Answer 46

Late European/West Asian premoderns * Named after the Neander Valley * Stem from earlier premoderns * First definite Neandertal remains date to 175 kya * Biache-Saint-Vaast, France * Latest Neandertalr emains date to 27 kya * MezmaiskayaCave, Russia Neandertals distribution Sites in Europe, the Middle East, and Near East Some famous sites: * Europe * Saint Cesaire, France * La Ferrassie, France * La Chapelle, France * Middle East and Near East * Shanidar, Iraq * Kebara, Amud, and Tabunin Israel

Answer 47

* Large brain (1600 cc) * long, low, cranial vault * Large double arched browridges * Midfacial prognathism * Occipital bun * No chin * Retromolar space * Juxtamastoid eminence

Answer 48

Similar to modern humans in many ways Key differences include: * Barrel-chested * Shorter limbs * Generally more robust skeleton (hyper-robust) * More powerfully muscled

Answer 49

Neandertal cranial & postcranial morphology has also been interpreted as an adaptation to cold climate * Body: * Short and wide, shortened limbs * Build may reflect need to conserve heat * Facial morphology: * Large brain * Large nasal aperture * Midfacial projection * Infraorbital foramina

Answer 50

* Strenuous * Show many (healed) injuries * Neandertals show injury pattern similar to modern rodeo riders * Proposed by Thomas Berger and Erik Trinkaus * May reflect more need for strength compared to recent humans * May reflect close approach to large prey (i.e., hunting strategy) * See Anthropology Matters! Box on page 390

Answer 51

1. Technology - use of tools 2. Subsistence 3. Speech 4. Burials - definitely intentional 5. Care Healed Injuries: * Spinal, rib, limb fractures * Amputation * Blindness * Degenerative joint diseases (i.e., arthritis) * Teeth loss (bad teeth!) * Little or no signs of infection Care for elders * Shanidar1 * Elderly man with withered right arm (paralysis?), walked with a limp, deformity to left side of skull 6. Art Oldest known example of abstract art (?) * Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar * Covered by sediment with 294 stone tools, which dates to 39kya

Answer 52

Genomes of people living outside of Africa today are composed of some 1 to 4 % Neanderthal DNA * Influenced skin and hair colour (POU2F3, BNC2) * mtDNA * At least 99.5% identical * Neanderthal-human common ancestor = 706 kya * Neanderthal-human split = 370 kya * rDNA * Genome sequencing (Green et al. 2010) * Evidence of admixture or common ancestor? (Yotovaet al. 2011) * FOXP2 (capacity for speech) * MC1R (“Ginger” man?) * Problems = decay, fragmentation, and contamination

Answer 53

Interbreeding * Hybrid individuals * Fossil evidence * Genetic evidence (mtDNA) * Means did not live as separate, independent group since ~40 kya * BUT might not mean interbreeding * Genocide * No evidence * Extinction * Retreat & refuge * “Poor mother” hypothesis (Paul Mason) The Middle Pleistocene was a transitional period in human evolution Hominins from this time show both ancestral (H. erectus) and more modern (H. sapiens) features; for this reason they are called premodernhumans * Also widely dispersed throughout the Old World Neandertals had a rich culture, but were a completely separate species from H. sapiens which contributed some genetic material via interbreeding

Answer 54

A gracile skull ◦ Minimal brow ridges ◦ Rounded cranium, higher forehead ◦ Cranial capacity ~1500 cc ◦ Small teeth and jaws ◦ Retracted face with an obvious chin (mental protuberance)

Answer 55

Key Sites: ◦ Jebel Irhoud, Morocco = 300 -350 kya kya ◦ Omo Kibish, Ethiopia = 195 kya ◦ Also: Herto, Aduma, Bouri Klasies River Mouth, Lothagam, Wadi , Kubbaniya, Wadi Halfa NEW SITE: Misliya(177-194 kya ) * Skhul& Qafzeh (120 -80 kya ) * Middle Eastern or Levant (Israel) data shows that Neandertals were not a precursor of modern humans * Instead, Middle Eastern data indicates that Neanderthals evolved in parallel with modern humans * Neanderthals became extinct in the Middle East around 40kya Other Sites * Asia * Fuyan Cave, China (80 -120kya) * Ordos, Mongolia (50 kya ) * Zhoukoudian, China (18 – 10 kya ) * European “Cro -Magnon Man” * At least by 45 kya * Borneo * Niah (40 kya ) * Australia * Majedbebe (65 kya ) * Lake Mungo (50 kya) * North America * After 20 kya

Answer 56

* New stone tool technology * Blades and microliths * Earliest dates to 300 kya in Africa * See modern behaviour before modern anatomy * Also abundance of bone, antler, shell, and wood * More hafting of tools * More standardized toolkits of highly specialized implements * Use of atlatl (projectile technology!) * Art * “explosion” in Europe around 40 kya * Body Ornamentation: * Pierced shells, pierced animal teeth, and bone beads were most likely worn as necklaces or attached to clothing or attached to clothing * Lice & clothing * “Human body lice reveal the birthdate of fashion” * ◦ Stoneking et al. 2003 et al. * Genetics of lice * 42 -70 kya

Answer 57

1. Replacement Model (Out of Africa II) * with or without hybridization 2. Multiregional/Continuity Model 3. Assimilation Model Shared assumption * Initial dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa * Out of Africa I

Answer 58

See four pages of notes from whiteboard presentation that is posted in Blackboard