Midterm 1 Flashcards

Question

What other racial classification systems existed in the early modern age aside for Linnaeus?

Answer 1

* Johann Friedrich Blumanbach * 5 categories - Ethiopian, American, Asian, Caucasian, Malayan

Answer 2

The science that deals with all influences that improve qualities of the race; also with those that develop them as to the utmost advantage

Answer 3

* Eugenics * public displays of Indigenous peoples * Polygenists * diversity represents different species * rise of craniometrics by Morton study carried on by Nott and Gliddon,

Answer 4

* Boas immigrant crania study * Biology's "new synthesis"

Answer 5

* found the cephalic index * means at least some of the variation we see in humans is due to environmental exposure and is not fixed

Answer 6

* Natural selection (1859) + Mendel's selection (1900) + population genetics (1920s - 1930s)

Answer 7

* showed fossils are remains of past organisms (1665) * micrographia (developed the microscope, 1667) * revealed that fossils reveal the history of the past * 1635-1703

Answer 8

* recognized stratification of rocks as arrangements of superimposed layers * established basic principles of archaeological excavation * established the principle of uniformitarianism * history of the earth (1785)

Answer 9

* was a vertebrate paleontologist * extensively studied fossils in particular mammoths * revealed variation in the fossil record * developed concepts of extinction and catastrophism * 1769-1832

Answer 10

* idea that all landforms were developed by processes (volcanos, erosion, sedimentation) * thus processes are uniform over time * model was incompatible with tradition as the *great age for the earth*

Answer 11

* idea that periodic catastrophes occur * caused by changes in landforms * replacement of fossils communities

Answer 12

* had to establish the age of the earth as biological teaching only suggested earth was created in 4004 BC * wrote principles of geology (1833)

Answer 13

* published first convincing evidence that stone tools found in France were associated with extinct animals (1841) * meant human history had to be longer then the Bible suggested

Answer 14

* observed plants and animals from many habitats * noted patterns in variation * proposed mechanism * each region has typical influence * populations entering a region are changed by its influence * 1707-1778

Answer 15

* inheritance of acquired characteristics * each environment has different demands * animals change over their lifetime to adapt to these demands * these changes are passed directly to their offspring * also not a process of selection, but introduced the idea of adaptation * 1744-1829

Answer 16

* theory developed independently by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913) * both were familiar with * debates in geology * debates in evolution * Theories of Thomas Malthus * human populations grow constantly * resources (food, land) are finite and place limits on population growth * Both show variation in nature through their travel and work

Answer 17

* observed finch populations on the Galapagos islands while on the HMS Beagle * influenced heavily by Lyell and Thomas Malthus * Wrote The Origin of the Species by Natural Selection (1859) * Changes in the organism over time with the change being neither positive or negative

Answer 18

* Wrote On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart from the Original Type (1858) * was on The Mischief - on the Amazon

Answer 19

Lamarack Darwin/Wallace - original group uniform - original group had variation - physical attributes - natural selection favors change to survive in attribute best suited to environment (ie neck survival (ie longer necks) length of giraffes stretch over life of giraffe to reach branches) - descendants with longer - after many generations trunks after many variation still exists but generations (change is population as a whole passed on) shows a general change in the trait (ie longer neck)

Answer 20

1. Producing offspring at a faster rate than food supplies increase 2. Biological variation exists in all species 3. There is competition among species 4. Favorable traits lead to fitness 5. Environment matters 6. Traits are inherited, leading to reproductive success 7. Time = more variation --\> different species 8. Geographic isolation --\> new species

Answer 21

* Discovered the principles of inheritance even before chromosomes were discovered * Grew more than 28,000 pea plants * ‘Discrete’ physical unit is inherited * Challenged the model of blended inheritance

Answer 22

1. Principle of Segregation * That parents contribute equally to an offspring’s genetic makeup * An organism has two alleles for each gene (which can be the same or different), one allele from each parent 2. Principles of Dominance and Recessiveness * Recessive: Dominant: Homozygous: Heterozygous: 3. Principle of Independent Assortment * The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair * The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another

Answer 23

a trait that is not expressed when in association with another more dominant allele e.g., A

Answer 24

a trait that is governed by an allele that is expressed in the presence of another allele e.g., a

Answer 25

having the same allele at the same locus on both members of a pair of chromosomes e.g., aa or AA4

Answer 26

having different alleles at the same locus on members of a pair of chromosomes e.g., Aa

Answer 27

The genetic makeup of an individual AA, aa, Aa = genotype ◦ e.g., AA = homozygous dominant ◦ e.g., aa = homozygous recessive ◦ e.g., Aa = heterozygous dominant

Answer 28

Physical manifestations of the gene Tall, short = phenotype ◦ Tall = Dominant = which could be from genotype AA or Aa ◦ Short = Recessive = which could only be from genotype aa

Answer 29

1. Autosomal dominant traits ◦ Governed by dominant alleles on autosomes – any chromosome except X or Y ◦ e.g., brachydactyly 2. Autosomal recessive traits ◦ Influenced by recessive alleles on autosomes – any chromosome except X or Y ◦ e.g., albinism 3. Sex-linked traits ◦ Controlled by genes located on the X and Y chromosomes ◦ e.g., hemophilia

Answer 30

when a single gene influences more than one phenotypic trait e.g. Phenylketonuria ◦ Autosomal recessive condition ◦ Leads to the accumulation of large quantities of the amino acid phenylalanine ◦ Causes mental delay and other phenotypic variation ◦ Must be fed altered diet – importance of environment

Answer 31

a trait that is influenced by two or more genes ◦ e.g., hair, eye, skin colour ◦ Epigenetic effects

Answer 32

Integrates modern genetics and the theory of evolution by natural selection ◦ First developed in 1920s and 1930s ◦ Theodosius Dobzhansky = first synthesizer ◦ Key differences from Darwin’s original model : ◦ Definition of evolution: a change in allele frequency from one generation to the next ◦ Understanding the causes of evolution

Answer 33

1. Natural selection 2. Mutation 3. Genetic drift 4. Gene flow 5. Sexual selection

Answer 34

Small-scale evolution, such as changes in allele frequency, that occurs from one generation to the next

Answer 35

Large-scale evolution, such as the appearance of a new species, that occurs after hundreds of thousands of generations

Answer 36

All the genetic information in the breeding population

Answer 37

within a species, a community of individuals where mates are usually found

Answer 38

How common an allele is in the gene pool

Answer 39

1. Geographic barriers ◦ Extreme example – Easter Island, no outside mating for centuries 2. Customs and attitudes ◦ Example – a religion that only allows marriage within that faith

Answer 40

is the main process that increases the frequency of adaptive traits through time ◦ Adaptive = results in greater reproductive success in a particular environment

Answer 41

1. Variation Variability between individuals within a population gives reproductive edge to some in a changing environment, leading to gradual change over time in the population as a whole ◦ Process became encapsulated in “survival of the fittest” (Herbert Spencer) 2. Heritability 3. Differential reproductive success

Answer 42

A) Directional Selection ◦ Selection for one allele over the other alleles, causing allele frequencies to shift in one direction ◦ e.g., larger brain size in humans and beak breadth in finches B) Stabilizing Selection ◦ Selection against the extremes of the phenotypic distribution, decreasing the genetic diversity for this trait in the population ◦ e.g., human birth weight C) Disruptive Selection ◦ Selection for both extremes of the phenotypic distribution; may eventually lead to a speciation event

Answer 43

are errors in DNA replication (Important source of variation) ◦ Point mutations: a chemical change in a single base of a DNA sequence; must occur in gametes to have any affect on the population e.g., sickle-cell trait Occurs constantly and are usually neutral or detrimental (only occasionally adaptive) Only source of NEW alleles

Answer 44

* Also known as admixture * Exchange of mates with another breeding population * Can add new alleles * Helps to maintain variability in small populations * Without gene flow, speciation can occur

Answer 45

* An allele becomes more or less common due to chance * Most effective in small populations * Two forms: ◦ Founder effect ◦ Genetic bottlenecks

Answer 46

Is only valid in cases where the frequencies do not change (equilibrium) ◦ See with no mutation, no natural selection, no gene flow, large populations, random mating, and if all members produce the same number of offspring Hardy-Weinberg law of equilibrium is a mathematical model ◦ Reflects the relationship between frequencies of alleles and of genotypes ◦ Used for testing whether a population is undergoing evolutionary changes ◦ Hypothesizes that gene frequencies remain the same because no evolutionary change takes place

Answer 47

p²+ 2pq + q²=1 p²=TT q²=tt 2pq = Tt

Answer 48

Subspecies: A division of a species; usually arises as a consequence of geographical isolation within a species; can be differentiated from other subspecies based on one or more phenotypic traits

Answer 49

◦ Broad regional categories based on variation in human appearance (Biological Race) ◦ Race has an important social reality in many societies (Social Race) ◦ Race as everyday “fact” of life

Answer 50

A group of people defined by: ◦ Common ancestry ◦ Genetic similarity ◦ A few selected, physical, visible traits only Implies greater genetic similarity within than between races Implies an objective system Should not include other (cultural, linguistic, religious, etc.) traits

Answer 51

Human variation is clinal ◦ Cline: gradual change in some phenotypic characteristic from one population to the next There are no “natural” boundaries ◦ Arbitrary divisions and definitions are still necessary ◦ When does “white” begin and end? ◦ Which parent defines “race”? ◦ When do you stop? How many races are there? ◦ Human populations interbreed Biological race is not “real”

Answer 52

It focuses on genetic relationships It focuses on geographic origin Ancestral relationships are traceable through ◦ Mitochondrial DNA ◦ Nuclear DNA

Answer 53

Racism frequently rests on claimed biological differences ◦ This is why it is important to critically analyze the biological traits used in defining race ◦ Scientific racism ◦ The Bell Curve & IQ tests

Answer 54

Most important factor in racial classification ◦ a.k.a. folk taxonomies Three influences on skin color 1. hemoglobin 2. carotene 3. melanin Influenced by natural selection More pigmentation at tropics, less in northern latitudes

Answer 55

1. skin color 2. eye form Epicanthic fold distinguishes eye from ◦ Is the Flap of skin extending from the eyelid to the bridge of the nose ◦ Function unknown

Answer 56

Gloger’s Rule: Mammals tend to have darker skin towards the equator and lighter skin towards the poles.

Answer 57

polymorphism

Answer 58

Two or more distinct phenotypes that exist within a population e.g., lactose intolerance ▪ Lactose ▪ Lactase ▪ Lactose intolerance ▪ Selection for lactose tolerance in populations with long history of dairying e.g., sickle-cell anemia e.g., blood types

Answer 59

Governed by three alleles – A, B, O ◦ Located at the ABO locus on the ninth chromosome ◦ Code for the production of an antigen A and B = dominant O is recessive A and B = co-dominant

Answer 60

Seen in contemporary populations: ◦ e.g., origins of Hungarian people ◦ e.g., migration history of Jewish people Morphological features: ◦ Must be transmitted in simple genetic fashion ◦ Must be resistant to environmental factors ◦ Must be easily examined ◦ e.g., features of the teeth

Answer 61

1. male 2. probable male 3. ambiguous 4. probable female 5. female

Answer 62

Life history approach ◦ Study of the evolution and function of life stages and behaviours related to those stages ◦ Human growth, development, senescence, and aging differ from that of other apes and other non-human primates, and other mammals ◦ These differences include: * Altricial offspring * Slow and prolonged growth including childhood and adolescence stages * Late start to reproductio * Menopause * Survival into 80s and beyond * Maximum life span over 122 years

Answer 63

1. Prenatal or gestational: conception to birth 2. Postnatal: ◦ Neonatal: first month ◦ Infancy: second month to first tooth or to end of lactation ◦ Childhood: 3 to 7 ◦ Juvenile: 7-10/12 ◦ Puberty: days or weeks… 3. Adolescence: puberty to ? (5-10 years) 4. Adult: ??? -120ish ◦ Old age/senescence

Answer 64

Changes in onset of puberty (decrease in age of menarche) ◦ Environmental factors (hormones in food etc.) Only humans have a significant part of the life span extend beyond female reproductive years ◦ Why does menopause occur?

Answer 65

Culture is also part of the human package of adaptive strategies which means that it is also a source of change in both human culture and in human biology Examples: ◦ Clearing of forests for horticulture establishing condition for natural selection for hemoglobin S ◦ Domestication of animals (cattle and other milk-producers) initiating natural selection for the persistence of lactase digestion into adulthood ◦ Ability to travel by air has increased the speed at which infectious diseases can spread ◦ Stature as indication of stress ◦ Dietary excess and overnutrition contributing to obesity pandemic ◦ Activity and skeletal homeostasis and reproductive ecology Humans respond biologically to all of these biocultural environmental circumstances However, if these count as adaptation is debated

Answer 66

Ability of an organism to make positive anatomical or physiological changes in the context of long-term exposure to environment (e.g., high altitude)

Answer 67

Ability of an organism to make very short-term changes in physiology in response to environment (e.g., heat and cold)

Answer 68

◦Heat * Vasodilation - An increase in blood flow to the surface of the body to dissipate heat * Sweating -Dissipating heat at the surface of the body ◦ Cold * Vasoconstriction - A decrease in blood flow to reduce heat loss * Shivering - Chief mechanism for producing heat

Answer 69

The principle that an organism’s size is heatrelated; smaller bodies are adapted to hot environments, and larger bodies to cold environments

Answer 70

The principle that an organism’s limb lengths are heat-related; limbs are long in hot environments and shorter in cold ones

Answer 71

At 10,000 feet above sea level ◦ Hypoxia - a condition in which body tissues are deprived of oxygen Acclimatization will occur in response process involves: ◦ Increase production of red blood cells ◦ Greater lung volume ◦ Ability to use oxygen more efficiently NOTE: - process different depending on whether you grew up in a high altitude environment

Answer 72

Skin colour is controlled by solar radiation Melanin, a brown pigment that determines the darkness of the skin is secreted by melanocytes in response to UV tan/sunburn + thickening of the skin = protection from UV(cancer etc.)

Answer 73

Humans also adapt to diet, to the kinds of foods we eat, to nutrition, and to the deriving of nutrients from those foods Body functions require nutrients to occur – too much or too little and those body functions are affected Majority of human populations are undernourished (undernutrition) – see stunted growth, predisposition for disease, etc. Increasingly the opposite is becoming the problem – too much food and too many of the wrong kinds (overnutrition) * see increase in type 2 diabetes, obesity, stroke, heart disease, etc

Answer 74

* The skeleton must be maintained to support the body and to allow for movement * Bone growth and development is subject to a range of factors * genes, physiological processes, disease, and nutrition * Bones are continuously remodeled over the course of our lives – Wolff’s Law * Highly physical populations have optimal bone density while those with high inactivity (or astronauts) show decline in bone density * However, excess aerobic exercise or under/overweight in females can lead to irregularity or cessation in menstruation (decreased fertility)

Answer 75

Bones are continuously remodeled over the course of our lives

Answer 76

▪ We are all a product of an evolutionary history ▪Adaptive: natural selection ▪Non-adaptive: genetic drift, gene flow, mutation ▪ ▪ We are all a product of our individual lifehistory ▪ Non-genetic/temporary: acclimatization ▪ Non-genetic/permanent: biological plasticity ▪ Genetic expression/intergenerational: epigenetics ▪ All of these are BIOCULTURAL

Answer 77

Not in slides look in book

Answer 78

look in textbook

Answer 79

Look in texts

Answer 80

Look in text note in slides

Answer 81

look in textbook did not see in slides

Answer 82

look in texts

Answer 83

* Introduce the modern or new synthesis in the 1920/30s * integrates modern genetics and the theory of evolution * Key differences from Darwin’s original model * Definition of evolution: a change in allele frequency from one generation to the next * Understanding the causes of evolution

Answer 84

don't see in slides

Answer 85

don't see in slides