FINAL EXAM A Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
How are anatomy and physiology related?
A
Anatomy is the study of the structure and shape of body and parts; physiology is the study of how body and parts work and function. They work together to move the human body and all of its functions.
2
Q
List the levels of organization in the human body from smallest to largest.
A
- Cell
- Tissue
- Organs
- Organ system
- Organism
3
Q
What is the importance of homeostasis to survival?
A
Homeostasis is internal stability necessary for functioning; when off balance, survival is harder.
4
Q
What are the parts of a homeostatic mechanism?
A
- Negative feedback: Stops the body from making something to reach homeostasis
- Positive feedback: Occurs during pregnancy and blood clots, tells the body to make more of something that is low
5
Q
Identify the locations of the major body cavities.
A
- Cephalic cavity: brain
- Spinal cavity: spine
- Thoracic cavity
- Abdominal cavity
6
Q
List the organs located in the cranial cavity.
A
Brain
7
Q
List the organs located in the spinal cavity.
A
Spine
8
Q
List the organs located in the thoracic cavity.
A
- Heart
- Lungs
- Esophagus
- Trachea
- Thymus
9
Q
List the organs located in the abdominal cavity.
A
- Stomach
- Liver
- Gallbladder
- Pancreas
- Intestines
- Spleen
- Kidneys
- Adrenal glands
10
Q
List the organs located in the pelvic cavity.
A
- Bladder
- Reproductive organs (ovaries, testes)
- Rectum
- Part of large intestine
11
Q
What are the major organ systems?
A
- Integumentary
- Skeletal
- Muscular
- Nervous
- Endocrine
- Cardiovascular
- Lymphatic & Immune
- Respiratory
- Digestive
- Urinary
- Reproductive
12
Q
What is the function of the integumentary system?
A
Covers body, regulates temperature, protects deep tissue
13
Q
What is the function of the skeletal system?
A
Protects supporting organs, framework, makes blood
14
Q
What is the function of the muscular system?
A
Facial expressions, posture, produces heat
15
Q
What is the function of the nervous system?
A
Fast control system, responds to internal and external stimuli
16
Q
What is the function of the endocrine system?
A
Secretes hormones from glands
17
Q
What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
A
Pumps blood, moves oxygen and carbon dioxide
18
Q
What is the function of the lymphatic & immune system?
A
Protection from pathogens/viruses/bacteria
19
Q
What is the function of the respiratory system?
A
Exchanges gases with the external environment, supplies oxygen, removes carbon dioxide
20
Q
What is the function of the digestive system?
A
Breaks down food, eliminates unneeded solids
21
Q
What is the function of the urinary system?
A
Eliminates nitrogenous waste, water regulation, electrolyte regulation
22
Q
What is the function of the reproductive system?
A
Produces offspring
23
Q
Define anatomical position.
A
Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward
24
Q
What are the four major tissue types?
A
- Connective
- Muscular
- Epithelial
- Nervous
25
What is a function of connective tissue?
Connects everything
26
What is a function of muscular tissue?
Moves skeletons, heartbeat, moves food in the digestive system
27
What is a function of epithelial tissue?
Lining of internal pathways
28
What is a function of nervous tissue?
Conducts electrical impulses
29
Describe the characteristics of simple squamous epithelium.
Single layer, flat, thin, permeable, specialized for rapid diffusion
30
Describe the characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelium.
Single layer, cube-shaped, involved in secretion and absorption
31
Describe the characteristics of simple columnar epithelium.
Single layer, tall cells, specialized for absorption, secretion, and protection
32
What type of epithelium is thick and protective?
Stratified squamous epithelium
33
What type of epithelium is generally 2 layers and very rare?
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
34
What type of epithelium has misaligned nuclei?
Pseudostratified epithelium
35
What type of epithelium varies in appearance and is layered?
Transitional epithelium
36
How are glands classified?
* Exocrine: Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine
* Endocrine: Hormones secreted into the blood
37
What is the main function of bone connective tissue?
Supports and protects the body, facilitates movement
38
What is the function of loose connective tissue?
Binds skin, fills space between muscles
39
What is the function of dense connective tissue?
Provides strength in one or multiple directions
40
What is the function of cartilage?
Provides flexible support and reduces friction between bones
41
What is the function of blood connective tissue?
Transports nutrients, gases, and waste
42
Distinguish between the three types of muscle tissues.
* Smooth: Involuntary, no striations, spindle shaped
* Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, found in heart
* Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, connects bones together
43
What are the general characteristics of nervous tissue?
* Neurons: Pass along/create electrical impulses, cannot regenerate
* Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons, can regenerate
44
Describe the structure of a long bone.
* Spongy bone: Lattice of trabeculae, filled with red marrow
* Compact bone: Arranged in osteons with haversian canals
* Medullary cavity: Contains marrow, blood vessels
* Epiphysis: Ends of long bone, spongy bone
* Diaphysis: Long shaft of bone
45
List the major functions of bones.
* Structure
* Protection
* Storage
* Manufacture
* Movement
46
Identify the types of bone fractures.
* Transverse
* Open/compound
* Oblique
* Comminuted
* Segmental
* Oblique displaced
* Avulsion
* Spiral
* Greenstick
47
What distinguishes the axial skeleton from the appendicular skeleton?
* Axial: Skull, vertebrae, thoracic cage
* Appendicular: Upper limbs, lower limbs
48
What are the major features of the skull bones?
[List of major skull bones and features]
49
What are the major features of the vertebral column?
[Number, types, features, locations of vertebrae]
50
What are the major features of the thoracic cage?
[Ribs, sternum features]
51
What are the major features of the pectoral girdle?
[Clavicles, scapulae features]
52
What are the major features of the upper limb?
[Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges features]
53
What are the major features of the pelvic girdle?
[Pelvis and coxal bones features]
54
What are the major features of the lower limb?
[Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges features]
55
Compare male and female skeletons, particularly the pelvis.
* Female: Larger and wider pubic arch
* Male: Smaller, more narrow pubic arch
56
Classify joints according to the type of tissue binding the bone.
* Fibrous: Immovable/slightly movable
* Cartilaginous: Immovable/slightly movable
* Synovial: Freely moving
57
List six types of synovial joints.
* Pivot
* Hinge
* Ball & Socket
* Saddle
* Condylar
* Gliding
58
What movements do hinge joints allow?
Flexion and extension
59
What movements do ball & socket joints allow?
Rotation, abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, circumduction
60
What example illustrates how skeletal muscles produce movements at joints?
When you extend your knee, the quadriceps femoris muscle contracts
61
Identify the structures that make up a skeletal muscle.
* Fascicle
* Muscle fiber
* Myofibril
62
What is the action of the patellar ligament?
Knee extension (straightening the leg)
63
List the various outcomes of muscle actions.
* Joint movement
* Postural control
* Heat production
64
Identify the structures that make up a skeletal muscle.
* Fascicle
* Muscle fiber
* Myofibril
* Myofilaments
65
What is a fascicle in skeletal muscle?
Bundles of fibers covered by perimysium to reduce friction
66
What is a muscle fiber?
Long, thin bundle of myofibrils covered by endomysium and sarcoplasmic reticulum
67
What are myofibrils?
Thread-like mixture of two myofilaments, structured into sarcomeres
68
What are the two types of myofilaments?
* Actin
* Myosin
69
What are the major parts of a skeletal muscle fiber?
* Fascicle
* Muscle fiber
* Myofibril
* Myofilaments
70
What is the initial event in skeletal muscle fiber contraction?
ATP becomes ADP + P releasing energy to activate myosin heads
71
What occurs during the power stroke in muscle contraction?
Energy in the myosin pulls actin towards the M line, ADP + P released
72
What is the role of ATP in muscle fiber contraction?
ATP attaches to myosin, releasing the cross bridge
73
What distinguishes fast and slow fiber types?
74
Fill in the blank: Muscle contractions generate force that moves bones at joints, allowing for actions such as _______.
[walking, lifting, and gesturing]
75
What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contractions?
76
What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle?
* Cylindrical
* Striated
* Multinucleated
* Voluntary controlled
77
What are the characteristics of smooth muscle?
* Arranged in uniform layers
* Non-striated
* Involuntary controlled
* Slow contractions
78
What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle?
* Branched
* Striated
* Multinucleated
* Involuntary controlled
79
Define the terms prime mover, synergist, and antagonist.
* Prime mover: muscle doing the action
* Synergist: additional muscle helping the mover
* Antagonist: opposing muscle in the action
80
Identify the two major groups of nervous system organs.
* Brain
* Spinal cord
81
What are the divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System?
* Sensory Division (Afferent)
* Motor Division (Efferent)
82
What is the function of astrocytes in the CNS?
Support and anchor neurons to surrounding capillaries
83
What is the function of microglia?
Provides immune response to neurons in CNS, phagocytes
84
What do ependymal cells do?
Secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
85
What is the function of the sodium-potassium pump?
Restores voltage to resting state
86
What are the main functions of the autonomic nervous system?
* Involuntary muscle control
* Sympathetic responses
* Parasympathetic responses
87
Describe the structure of a neuron.
* Dendrites
* Axon
* Cell Body (Soma)
* Nodes of Ranvier
88
What do Schwann cells provide in the PNS?
Myelin insulation to neurons
89
What is the role of the receptor in a reflex arc?
Receives the stimulus
90
What is the role of the effector in a reflex arc?
Stimulated muscle that performs the reflex
91
List the coverings of the brain and spinal cord.
* Dura mater
* Arachnoid layer
* Pia mater
92
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?
Maintain blood-brain barrier, protect the brain
93
What are the five kinds of receptors?
* Chemoreceptors
* Mechanoreceptors
* Photoreceptors
* Thermoreceptors
* Pain receptors
94
What are the general senses?
* Touch
* Temperature
* Pressure
* Pain
95
What are the special senses?
* Taste
* Smell
* Vision
* Hearing
* Balance
96
Where are olfactory receptors located?
Olfactory bulb in the upper nasal cavity
97
What is the role of the tympanic membrane?
Passes vibrations from outer ear to ossicles
98
Where are receptors for hearing located?
Stereocilia (cilia fibers)
99
What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium?
100
What is the function of the tympanic membrane?
Passes vibrations from outer ear to ossicles
101
What does the malleus do?
Vibrates against eardrum and passes vibration to incus
102
What role does the incus play in hearing?
Continues to amplify sound waves and vibrate stapes
103
What is the function of the stapes?
Transmits vibrations to the inner ear
104
How do vibrations reach the brain?
Vibrations are received by McKenna receptors and pass to the brain via auditory nerve
105
What is contained within the cochlea?
Periolence fluid in Oregon of Corti
106
Define static equilibrium.
Maculae help keep head upright at rest
107
Define dynamic equilibrium.
Otoliths slide on gel-like membrane, making receptor cells in maculae move
108
What is the sclera?
White of eye, fibrous connective tissue that protects and shapes eye
109
What is the function of the choroid?
Pigmented, vascular membrane that includes the iris and pupil
110
What does the retina contain?
Photoreceptors that turn light into impulses
111
What is the role of the aqueous humor?
Nourishes cornea (in front of lens)
112
What is the function of vitreous humor?
Jelly-like substance that refracts light (behind lens)
113
What is the lens's role in the eye?
Directs light towards the retina and undergoes accommodation
114
What does the pupil do?
Regulates light entering the eye
115
What is the function of the iris?
Regulates light
116
What do ciliary muscles do?
Bend lens and flatten it
117
What is the fovea?
Tiny pit that only contains cones; point of sharpest image
118
What does the optic nerve do?
Carries impulse to the brain, creates blind spot where it meets retina
119
What are rods and where are they located?
All over retina; provide vision in low light and are extremely sensitive
120
What are cones and where are they concentrated?
Concentrated in center of retina; detect colors and are less sensitive
121
What are the primary refractors of light in the eye?
Cornea and lens
122
Fill in the blank: The visual nerve pathway is __________.
Retina → optic nerve → optic chiasm → visual cortex
123
What are the two types of secretions in the endocrine system?
*Steroid hormones
*Non-steroid hormones
124
How does the nervous system respond compared to the endocrine system?
Nervous system responds quickly through electrical impulses; endocrine system responds slowly with hormones
125
Distinguish between endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine secretions.
Endocrine: affects distant cells; Autocrine: affects the same cell; Paracrine: affects nearby cells
126
How do steroid hormones affect target cells?
Can pass through the target cell's membrane, altering action of the cell
127
How do non-steroid hormones affect target cells?
Not able to pass through cell membranes; bind at receptor
128
What is the function of negative feedback mechanisms in hormonal secretions?
Stops or lowers the input
129
How does the nervous system control secretion of hormones?
130
Where is the anterior pituitary located?
In front of the posterior pituitary
131
List the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary and their functions.
*TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) - stimulates the thyroid
*ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) - stimulates the adrenal glands
*GH (Growth Hormone) - stimulates growth (bone/muscle)
*MSH (Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone) - stimulates melanocytes (melanin)
*Prolactin - stimulates milk production
*Gonadotrophs - stimulates sex hormones (testes, ovaries)
132
Where is the posterior pituitary located?
Behind the anterior pituitary
133
List the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary and their functions.
*AH (Antidiuretic hormone) - increases water retention in the kidneys, decreases urination
*Oxytocin - stimulates breast milk and labor contractions
134
How is the secretion of each pituitary hormone regulated?
All regulated by the hypothalamus
135
Where is the thyroid gland located?
In the neck
136
List the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland and their functions.
*Calcitonin - decreases calcium levels in the blood
*T3 & T4 (Thyroxine & Triiodothyronine) - regulate metabolism, body temperature, oxygen levels, blood pressure
137
How is the secretion of each thyroid hormone regulated?
Hypothalamus and negative feedback loop
138
Where are the parathyroid glands located?
On the posterior part of the thyroid
139
What hormone do the parathyroid glands secrete and what is its function?
PTH (Parathyroid hormone) - increases calcium levels in blood
140
How is the secretion of parathyroid hormone regulated?
Hypothalamus
141
Where are the adrenal glands located?
Above the kidneys
142
List the hormones secreted by the adrenal glands and their functions.
*Glucocorticoid - regulate levels to recover (return back to level)
*Epinephrine & norepinephrine - regulate fight/flight, blood flow, heart rate, oxygen levels, body temperature
143
How is the secretion of adrenal hormones regulated?
Hypothalamus
144
Where is the pancreas located?
In the abdominal cavity
145
List the hormones secreted by the pancreas and their functions.
*Insulin - lowers blood glucose levels
*Glucagon - increases blood glucose levels
146
How is the secretion of each pancreatic hormone regulated?
*Insulin - beta cells, negative feedback
*Glucagon - alpha cells, negative feedback
147
Where are the pineal and thymus glands located?
*Pineal: posterior half of the brain
*Thymus: upper chest behind the breastbone
148
List the hormones secreted by the pineal, thymus, and other endocrine glands.
*Pineal: melatonin
*Thymus: thymopoietin, thymic factor, thymosin
*Ovaries: estrogen, progesterone
*Testes: testosterone
149
What is the function of melatonin?
Creates sleep/wake cycle (circadian rhythm)
150
What is the function of thymopoietin, thymic factor, and thymosin?
Development of immune system
151
What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete?
PSH (pituitary stimulating hormone)
152
What is the function of PSH?
Control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands; regulates sleep/wake cycle, hunger, thirst
153
What is the function of estrogen and progesterone?
*Estrogen - maturing of sex organs, secondary sex characteristic
*Progesterone - control of menstruation, contributes to breast development
154
How is the secretion of hormones from the pineal, thymus, and other endocrine glands regulated?
Negative feedback loop
