Final Exam Review Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
What Is a Group?
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A group is a collection of three or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent.
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Dyad
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Group of 2 people
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Q
Group Dynamics
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The study of the nature of groups and their development, and the interrelationships of groups with individuals, other groups, and larger institutions.
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Why People Join Groups
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- Forming relationships with others fulfils a number of basic human needs
- Groups help us define who we are as individuals.
- Group membership also motivates people to become involved in social change.
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Social norms
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Specify how group members should behave.
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Social roles
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Social roles are shared expectations by group members on how particular people in the group are supposed to behave.
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Gender roles
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Expectations about how men and women should behave and what professions they ought to pursue.
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Q
Cohesion
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Dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs
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Q
Four cohesion characteristics
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- Cohesion is dynamic: Reasons for cohesion can change over time.
- Cohesion is multidimensional: Factors that hold groups together are varied and numerous.
- Cohesion is instrumental: All groups form for a reason.
- Cohesion is effective: Sometimes groups stay together because there are strong emotional ties.
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Individual aspects
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Beliefs group members hold about personal benefits of group membership
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Group aspects
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Beliefs members hold about the group as a collective
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Task cohesion
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Players’ willingness to work collectively to achieve the team’s objectives.
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Social cohesion
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The orientation toward developing and maintaining social relationships within the group.
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Group cohesiveness
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Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them.
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Group diversity
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Groups tend to be homogeneous, comprised of members who are alike in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions.
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Social Facilitation
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Tendency for people to do better on simple tasks but worse on complex tasks, when in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
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Q
3 ideas explaining the role of arousal
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- The presence of other people cause us to become alert and vigilant
- Others make us apprehensive about being evaluated (evaluation apprehension)
- Others distract us from the task
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Social Loafing
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The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks, but better on complex tasks, when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated
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Deindividuation
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The loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
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Group Decisions
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Contrary to expectations, groups of people do not always make better decisions than individuals alone.
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Groupthink
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Groupthink is a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
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Q
Group Polarization
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The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of their members
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Social Dilemmas
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A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
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Q
Prisoner’s Dilemma
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The dilemma is that the choice which seems best from the viewpoint of most individual players will not lead to the best outcome if both players choose it.
The best outcome for both players is to choose a cooperative strategy, even though the competitive strategy seems more appealing.
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Negotiation
Is a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counter-offers are made.
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Integrative Solution
A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests.
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Conformity
A change in behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of others.
- Informational Social Influence
- Normative Social Influence
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Private acceptance
Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.
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Public acceptance
Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly, without necessarily believing in what
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Conforming due to Information Social Influence
- Ambiguous or confusing situations
- Crisis situations
- When other people are experts
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Conforming due to Normative Social Influence
- The Need to Be Accepted
- Conforming to be liked and accepted by others.
- Conforming to avoid being ridiculed, punished or rejected by one’s group.
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The Asch Line Judgment Studies
Participants were in a group with accomplices who gave the wrong answer on 12 of 18 trials.
76% of the participants conformed by also giving the wrong answer on at least one trial (even though they knew the right answer)
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Social Impact Theory
Predicts that the likelihood of conforming to social influence; depends on group:
- Strength: how important the group is to you.
- Immediacy: how close the group is to you in space and time during the influence attempt.
- Number: how many people are in the group.
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Compliance
A change in behaviour in response to a direct request.
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Door-in-the-Face Technique
Gets people to comply with a request by first presenting them with a large request, which they are expected to refuse.
Then they are presented with a smaller, more reasonable request, to which it is hoped they will accept. (based on the reciprocity norm)
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Foot-in-the-Door Technique
First presenting them with a smaller request, which they are expected to accept.
Then they are presented with the larger request, to which it is hoped they will also accept. (triggers a change in self-perception)
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Lowballing Technique
Inducing a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, and then raising the price.
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Obedience to Authority
Obedience is conformity in response to the commands of an authority figure.
Under strong social pressure, individuals will conform to authority, even when this means doing something immoral.
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Milgram’s Study
Ordinary people influenced to inflict severe pain on an innocent other
62. 5% of participants fully obeyed the experimenter and gave up to the maximum of 450 volts shock.
- Normative Social Influence - Made it difficult for people to refuse to continue with the study
- Social Influence - Plays an important role when a situation is ambiguous, unfamiliar and upsetting
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Attitude
An evaluation of a person, object, or idea.
| Can be positive or negative.
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"ABCs of attitude"
Affective
Behavioural
Cognitive
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Affective Attitude
An affectively based attitude is based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object
Is linked to people’s values
Is not the result of rational analyses of an issue
Is not governed by logic
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Behavioural Attitude
A behaviourally based attitude is based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object (what we do about something)
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Cognitive Attitude
A cognitively based attitude is based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object (how we think about something)
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Explicit Attitudes
We can consciously endorse and easily report.
| Are likely rooted in recent experiences.
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Implicit Attitudes
Involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious.
| Tend to be rooted in childhood experiences.
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Spontaneous behaviours
can be predicted when people have experience with the attitude object, thereby increasing its accessibility
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The Theory of Planned Behaviour
Maintains that the best predictor of people’s deliberate behaviour is their intention.
- Attitudes towards the specific behaviour.
- Perceptions of social norms regarding that behaviour.
- Perceived behavioural control regarding the behaviour
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Persuasive communication
A communication (e.g. a speech or television advertisement) advocating a particular side of an issue.
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Yale Attitude Change Approach
The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
- The central route occurs when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication.
- The peripheral route occurs when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics.
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Fear-arousing communication
Fear-arousing communication is a persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears.
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Advertising and Attitude Change
For cognitively based attitudes, using rational arguments and personal relevance is best.
For affectively based attitudes, using emotion is best.
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Cultural Differences in Advertising
People in Western (individualist) tend to favor advertising that stresses independence.
People in Eastern (collectivist) cultures are more likely to be persuaded by advertising that stresses interdependence
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Subliminal messages
Words or pictures used to persuade that are not consciously perceived.
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Attitude Inoculation
The process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position.
Doing so allows people to develop their own counterarguments and thus strengthen their attitude.
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Product placement
A persuasion method whereby advertisers place their product into the script of a movie or television show.
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Cognitive dissonance
A feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behaviour is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes.
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Reducing Cognitive Dissonance
Change the attitude.
Change the behaviour.
Change the cognition.
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Post-decision dissonance
Typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives.
The more permanent and less revocable the decision, the greater the need to reduce dissonance.
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Justification of Effort
The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain (e.g., group membership).
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Counter Attitudinal Behaviour
External Justification: a person’s reason or explanation for dissonant behaviour that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward).
Internal Justification: the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one’s attitude or behaviour).
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Insufficient justification
people are more likely to engage in a behavior that contradicts their personally held beliefs when they are offered a smaller reward, in comparison to a larger reward
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The Hypocrisy Paradigm
Sometimes people are not aware that they are behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with their stated values.
By bringing this to their attention through hypocrisy induction, dissonance is aroused and this can lead to attitude and behaviour change.
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Self-Affirmation Theory
When the typical strategies for reducing dissonance fail, one can find relief through self-affirmation, that is, affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat.
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Dissonance, Self-Affirmation, and Culture
Research shows that an independent self-affirmation diminished the need for dissonance reduction among European-Canadians (Hoshino-Browne et al., 2005).
An interdependent self affirmation diminished the need for dissonance reduction among East Asians.
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Sociological imagination
Sociological imagination is an ability to connect personal challenges to larger social issues Ideologies are cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality
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Micro-level Prejudice
the social dynamics of intimate, face-to-face interactions
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Macro-level Prejudice
large-scale, society-wide social interactions: the dynamics of institutions, class structures, gender relations, or whole populations
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Global-level Prejudice
structures and processes that extend beyond the boundaries of countries or specific societies
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Prejudice
A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group
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Stereotypes
A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members
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Gender Stereotyping
Exaggerates differences between sexes, and ignores differences in personality traits and abilities
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Influences of gender stereotyping
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Sex is assigned at birth (female, male, intersex, other)
Sexual orientation (attraction), gender identity (individual experience of gender), and gender expression (presentation/ communication of gender) are not set at birth - they can change over time.
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Hostile sexism
Hostile sexism aims to preserve men's dominance over women by underlining men's power (Mastari, 2019)
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Benevolent sexism
Benevolent sexism is a subtler form of sexism, expressed in a seemingly positive way by emphasizing men's role to protect and provide for women by putting them on a pedestal (chivalry) (Mastari, 2019)
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System- justifying
justifying social dominance of their group over others by increasing self-esteem of lower groups to justify the system that oppresses them
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Old-fashioned racism
Belief that minorities are biologically inferior to whites & should be segregated (Parker et al., 2019)
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Modern racism
Outwardly unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes and beliefs.
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Racial Microaggressions
Subtle, ambiguous, often unintentional (but intent vs. impact)
Sometimes well-meaning, but communicate hostile, derogatory or negative messages or assumptions
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Discrimination
Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because of his or her membership in that group
Blatant and/or subtle
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Systemic Discrimination
Patterns of behaviour, policies, or practices that are part of the structures of an organization that create or perpetuate disadvantage for a certain group of people
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Implicit Association Test (IAT)
respond to words or pictures on the computer (e.g., associate black or white faces with unpleasant words), and their response times reveal hidden prejudice
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Modern Racism Scale (MRS)
A measure of racial prejudice in which people indicate their level of agreement with prejudice statements (McConahay, Hardee & Batts, 1980)
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Neosexism Scale
A measure of sexist attitudes in which participants are asked to evaluate how much they agree with sexist statements (e.g., women should not be working) (Tougas et al., 1995)
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Social Identity Theory (SIT)
SIT asserts that people have a proclivity to categorize their social world into meaningfully simplistic representations of groups of people
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Social Categorization
We make sense of our social world by putting people into groups according to their characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity)
In-Group Bias: In-group vs. out-group occurs
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Automatic Stereotypes
trigger stereotypes, without control
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Controlled Stereotypes
a conscious decision to suppress the stereotype
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Automatic activation of stereotypes
The motivation to control prejudice
The need to feel good about ourselves
We will activate negative stereotypes when they boost self esteem
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Meta-stereotypes
A person’s beliefs regarding the stereotype that out-group members hold about themselves
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Socialization of Negative Group Stereotypes
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Observational Learning (Bandura’s Bobo doll)
Respondent conditioning linking a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (US) (Pavlovs dogs)
Operant conditioning: if/then…reinforcement
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Attribution theory
people are motivated to explain their own and other people’s behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to either something in themselves or a trait they have, called a dispositional attribution, or to something outside the person called a situational attribution. We also commit the fundamental attribution error which is an error in assigning a cause to another’s
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Ultimate attribution error
Our tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people
For out-groups, poor outcomes are attributed to dispositional causes, whereas successful outcomes are often attributed to situational causes
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Realistic Conflict Theory
Limited resources lead to conflict among groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination
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Injunctification
A motivated tendency to see the status quo as the most desirable state of affairs.
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Normative Rules
Many people hold prejudiced attitudes and engage in discriminatory behaviour in order to conform to, or fit in with, the prevailing majority view of their culture
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Individuals High in Prejudice
Right-wing authoritarianism
Religious fundamentalism
Social dominance orientation
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Right-wing authoritarianism
High degree of submission to authority figures.
Aggression towards groups that are seen as legitimate targets by authority figures.
High degree of conformity to rules established by authority figures.
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Religious fundamentalism
Believe in the absolute and literal truth of one’s religious beliefs.
Believe that their religion is right and that forces of evil are threatening to undermine the truth.
Not to be confused with being religious.
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Social dominance orientation
Believe that groups of people are inherently unequal.
Believe it is acceptable for some groups to benefit more than others, and for some groups to receive poorer treatment than others.
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Self-fulfilling prophecies
When a member of a disadvantaged group is mistreated by a member of a majority group, the disadvantaged person is unlikely to perform well, thereby confirming the majority group member’s negative stereotype and perpetuating the discrimination.
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Stereotype Threat
Apprehension experienced by members of a minority group that they might behave in a manner that confirms an existing cultural stereotype
-Being reminded of a negative stereotype associated with one’s group may impair performance on a relevant task
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The Teaching Tolerance movement
The program centers on social justice, which includes the domains of identity, diversity, justice, and action; and anti-bias, which encourages children and young people to challenge prejudice and be agents of change in their own lives.
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Changing Stereotypes
Exposure to counter-stereotypical examples can cause people to modify their attitudes over time
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Intergroup Contact Theory - The Contact Hypothesis
Reducing Prejudice
Both groups are of equal status.
They share a common goal (shared interests).
The contact involves intergroup cooperation.
The contact is supported by societal social norms.
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The Extended Contact Hypothesis
Knowing that a member of one’s own group has a close relationship with a member of another group can reduce prejudice with that group.
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The Jigsaw Classroom
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Placing them in small desegregated groups.
Making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class
Results show that once a group begins to work well, barriers break down and the students show liking for one another and empathy too
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Prosocial behaviour
Prosocial behaviour is any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person.
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Altruism
Altruism is the desire to help others, even if it involves a cost to the helper.
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Need to Belong Theory
Humans’ minimum need for forming and maintaining social relationships drives human behaviour, emotion and cognition
The need to belong to groups makes people follow social norms and to act accordingly to social standards, in order to feel accepted and integrated into the community
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Self-Categorization Theory
Groups change people’s behaviours and attitudes in accordance to expected behaviours in order to maintain their membership in the group group impact depends on the level of internalization of belonging to a group
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Sociometer Theory
People’s actions are based in protecting and increasing their value in relation with others, therefore enhancing the probabilities of acceptance in society
Acceptance and affiliation of members facilitated natural selection over those members who did not follow the norms nor values of the community, and who were rejected
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problems related with dysfunctional behaviours
Rejection creates negative feelings in people, and fosters abnormal interpersonal behaviour, usually creating depression, anxiety, and hostility
People normally strive for higher relational value with desirable social means
People ineffectively accepted make distances and devalue themselves in relation with other individuals
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Kin Selection
Behaviour that helps a genetic relative is favoured by natural selection.
People are more likely to help genetic relatives than non-relatives in emergency situations.
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The Norm of Reciprocity
The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood they will help us in the future
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Reciprocity Explained by Theories
Need-to-belong theory: reciprocal altruism could be a societal norm in the community therefore people would engage in this behaviour to feel accepted
SCT would suggest that reciprocal altruism could be internalized in new groups in order to foster prosocial behaviour
The sociometer theory would claim that reciprocal altruism contributes to the acceptance of the group, therefore member would help more others
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Learning Social Norms
Learners of societal norms have a competitive advantage (Simon 1990) and are more likely to survive.
- Peers: Status in the peer group Is associated with the level of group acceptance and type of prosocial behaviour.
- Childhood memories
- Limitation: cross-cultural variations in helping
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Learning Social Norms Explained by Theories
Need-to-belong theory, parents would teach social norms and skills of prosocial behaviour in order to feel part of the community.
SCT suggests that these norms can be internalized to groups and subgroups in order to increase social cohesion, and prosocial behaviour.
The sociometer theory would claim that parents teach these social values in order to increase the relational value of their children compared with others who do not help.
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Empathy
The ability to experience events and emotions the way another person experiences them
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Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help him or her purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
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Empathy-Altruism Explained by Theories
According to the need-to-belong theory empathy and altruism could be practiced in order to feel part of society.
SCT would suggest that altruism and empathy could be internalized in the values of groups and increase prosocial behaviour.
The sociometer theory would claim that empathy and altruism would be used to increase member’s relational value to others, and to be more accepted in society; people would practice them more if they were more suggested to society.
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Social Exchange:
Social exchange theory argues that prosocial behaviour:
- Can be based on self interest.
- Stems from the desire to maximize our outcomes and minimize our costs
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Individual Differences - Altruistic Personality
The aspects of a person’s makeup that are said to make him or her likely to help others in a wide variety of situations Individual Differences:
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Gender Differences in Prosocial Behaviour:
Men: More likely to perform acts of bravery and heroism
Women: More likely to give supportive long-term help to individuals, groups, and important causes
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Religion and Prosocial Behaviour
“Golden Rule” is a common theme in world religions.
Religious people are more likely to help in public situations.
Priming with religion increases prosocial behaviour.
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Mood
a “feel good, do good” effect in diverse situations: People are more likely to help when they are in a good mood
We are also more likely to help if we are feeling guilty, sad, or distressed
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Negative-state relief hypothesis
The idea that people help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress
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Culture
In all cultures people are:
-More likely to help a member of their in-group
-Less likely to help a member of an out-group
Compared to members of individualist cultures, members of collective societies are:
-More likely to help in-group members
-Less likely to help out-group members
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Environment: Rural Vs. Urban
As compared to people in urban areas, people in rural areas usually help more
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Urban-overload hypothesis:
Urbanites constantly bombarded with stimulation so they keep to themselves to avoid being overloaded by it
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Bystander Effect:
The greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them will help
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Pluralistic Ignorance
The phenomenon whereby bystanders assume that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned.
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Diffusion of Responsibility
Each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses to an emergency or crisis increases.
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Fear of judgment or embarrassment
People sometimes fear leaping to assistance only to discover that their help was unwanted or unwarranted
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How other people respond
People also tend to look to others for how to respond in such situations, particularly if the event contains some level of ambiguity. If no one else seems to be reacting, then individuals become less likely to respond as well
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Increasing the Likelihood that Bystanders Will Intervene
Teaching people about the bystander effect and determinants of prosocial behaviour
