Final Exam Review Flashcards
What Is a Group?
A group is a collection of three or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent.
Dyad
Group of 2 people
Group Dynamics
The study of the nature of groups and their development, and the interrelationships of groups with individuals, other groups, and larger institutions.
Why People Join Groups
- Forming relationships with others fulfils a number of basic human needs
- Groups help us define who we are as individuals.
- Group membership also motivates people to become involved in social change.
Social norms
Specify how group members should behave.
Social roles
Social roles are shared expectations by group members on how particular people in the group are supposed to behave.
Gender roles
Expectations about how men and women should behave and what professions they ought to pursue.
Cohesion
Dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs
Four cohesion characteristics
- Cohesion is dynamic: Reasons for cohesion can change over time.
- Cohesion is multidimensional: Factors that hold groups together are varied and numerous.
- Cohesion is instrumental: All groups form for a reason.
- Cohesion is effective: Sometimes groups stay together because there are strong emotional ties.
Individual aspects
Beliefs group members hold about personal benefits of group membership
Group aspects
Beliefs members hold about the group as a collective
Task cohesion
Players’ willingness to work collectively to achieve the team’s objectives.
Social cohesion
The orientation toward developing and maintaining social relationships within the group.
Group cohesiveness
Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them.
Group diversity
Groups tend to be homogeneous, comprised of members who are alike in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions.
Social Facilitation
Tendency for people to do better on simple tasks but worse on complex tasks, when in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
3 ideas explaining the role of arousal
- The presence of other people cause us to become alert and vigilant
- Others make us apprehensive about being evaluated (evaluation apprehension)
- Others distract us from the task
Social Loafing
The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks, but better on complex tasks, when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated
Deindividuation
The loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
Group Decisions
Contrary to expectations, groups of people do not always make better decisions than individuals alone.
Groupthink
Groupthink is a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
Group Polarization
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of their members
Social Dilemmas
A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
Prisoner’s Dilemma
The dilemma is that the choice which seems best from the viewpoint of most individual players will not lead to the best outcome if both players choose it.
The best outcome for both players is to choose a cooperative strategy, even though the competitive strategy seems more appealing.
Negotiation
Is a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counter-offers are made.
Integrative Solution
A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests.
Conformity
A change in behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of others.
- Informational Social Influence
- Normative Social Influence
Private acceptance
Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.
Public acceptance
Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly, without necessarily believing in what
Conforming due to Information Social Influence
- Ambiguous or confusing situations
- Crisis situations
- When other people are experts
Conforming due to Normative Social Influence
- The Need to Be Accepted
- Conforming to be liked and accepted by others.
- Conforming to avoid being ridiculed, punished or rejected by one’s group.
The Asch Line Judgment Studies
Participants were in a group with accomplices who gave the wrong answer on 12 of 18 trials.
76% of the participants conformed by also giving the wrong answer on at least one trial (even though they knew the right answer)
Social Impact Theory
Predicts that the likelihood of conforming to social influence; depends on group:
- Strength: how important the group is to you.
- Immediacy: how close the group is to you in space and time during the influence attempt.
- Number: how many people are in the group.
Compliance
A change in behaviour in response to a direct request.
Door-in-the-Face Technique
Gets people to comply with a request by first presenting them with a large request, which they are expected to refuse.
Then they are presented with a smaller, more reasonable request, to which it is hoped they will accept. (based on the reciprocity norm)
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
First presenting them with a smaller request, which they are expected to accept.
Then they are presented with the larger request, to which it is hoped they will also accept. (triggers a change in self-perception)
Lowballing Technique
Inducing a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, and then raising the price.
Obedience to Authority
Obedience is conformity in response to the commands of an authority figure.
Under strong social pressure, individuals will conform to authority, even when this means doing something immoral.
Milgram’s Study
Ordinary people influenced to inflict severe pain on an innocent other
- 5% of participants fully obeyed the experimenter and gave up to the maximum of 450 volts shock.
- Normative Social Influence - Made it difficult for people to refuse to continue with the study
- Social Influence - Plays an important role when a situation is ambiguous, unfamiliar and upsetting
Attitude
An evaluation of a person, object, or idea.
Can be positive or negative.
“ABCs of attitude”
Affective
Behavioural
Cognitive
Affective Attitude
An affectively based attitude is based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object
Is linked to people’s values
Is not the result of rational analyses of an issue
Is not governed by logic
Behavioural Attitude
A behaviourally based attitude is based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object (what we do about something)
Cognitive Attitude
A cognitively based attitude is based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object (how we think about something)
Explicit Attitudes
We can consciously endorse and easily report.
Are likely rooted in recent experiences.
Implicit Attitudes
Involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious.
Tend to be rooted in childhood experiences.
Spontaneous behaviours
can be predicted when people have experience with the attitude object, thereby increasing its accessibility
The Theory of Planned Behaviour
Maintains that the best predictor of people’s deliberate behaviour is their intention.
- Attitudes towards the specific behaviour.
- Perceptions of social norms regarding that behaviour.
- Perceived behavioural control regarding the behaviour
Persuasive communication
A communication (e.g. a speech or television advertisement) advocating a particular side of an issue.
Yale Attitude Change Approach
The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages
Elaboration Likelihood Model
- The central route occurs when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication.
- The peripheral route occurs when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics.
Fear-arousing communication
Fear-arousing communication is a persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears.
Advertising and Attitude Change
For cognitively based attitudes, using rational arguments and personal relevance is best.
For affectively based attitudes, using emotion is best.
Cultural Differences in Advertising
People in Western (individualist) tend to favor advertising that stresses independence.
People in Eastern (collectivist) cultures are more likely to be persuaded by advertising that stresses interdependence