Midterm 1 Review Flashcards
(110 cards)
1
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Social Psych
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Defined as the study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
2
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Construals
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It is not the objective properties of the social environment, but rather how people perceive, comprehend, and interpret their social world
These subjective interpretations of social phenomena are referred to as construals
3
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Differences in Personality vs Social Psych
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- Both share an emphasis on individuals & the reasons for their behaviour
- Social psychs emphasize the psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence
- Personality psych’s focus on individuals differences or the aspects of people’s personalities that make them different from others
4
Q
Five Hypotheses (Liberman et al. 2004)
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- Situations are powerful (influence how a person will react)
- We often don’t know why people do what they do (underestimate environmental factors)
- We often don’t know what we don’t know (we make mistakes and assumptions)
- It’s amazing that we are as accurate as we are about people
- People are influenced by two social motivations (a need to belong/feel like and a need to feel authentic)
5
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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We often misjudge the thoughts, feelings, personalities of people
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The Self-Esteem Approach
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-Self-esteem is an evaluation of one’s self-worth
-need to maintain a positive view of ourselves
(often sacrifice the need to be accurate in order to protect self-esteem)
7
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Self-Justification
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- May alter recollections of past actions that are unhappy, upset, or ashamed, to feel good about our past actions and decisions
- May modify attitude about painful situations, to justify participation
8
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Identity
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Who you are, the way you think about yourself, the way you are viewed by the world and the characteristics that define you
9
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Ideology
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A set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, it is a system of ideas that aspires both to explain the world and to change it
10
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The Social Cognition Approach
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Social Cognition - refers to how people think about themselves & their social world (select, interpret, remember and use social info)
The incorporation of human cognitive abilities into theories of social behaviour (Reasoning abilities, decision-making, judgements about others)
11
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Social Problems
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Social psychological research has attempted to understand human social behaviour & to find solutions to social problems
- Reducing hostility & prejudice
- Examining the effects of violent TV on behaviour
- Discouraging unhealthy behaviours
12
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Schema theory
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Through schema activation, judgments are formed that go beyond the information actually available; when we see or think of a concept, a mental representation or “schema” is activated that brings to mind other related information, usually unconsciously
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Cultural Differences in Social Cognition
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Western social cognition is thought to be more analytical, while Eastern social cognition is thought to be more holistic
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Social Cognition
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How people think about themselves and the social world – how they select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
15
Q
Automatic Thinking
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Low-effort thinking
Thinking that is generally unconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless
Helps us understand new situations by relating them to our prior experiences (assimilation & accommodation)
Relies on schemas for this information
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Schemas
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mental structures people use to organize the knowledge about the social world, influence the info we notice, think about and remember
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The Function & Application of Schemas
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- organize, and make sense of world, fill in the gaps of knowledge
- Help us to have continuity and to relate new experiences to our past
- Help us know what to do in ambiguous or confusing situations (Quick judgement)
18
Q
Accessibility
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The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world.
- Chronically accessible (past experience)
- Temporarily accessible (related to current goal)
- Temporarily accessible (a result of priming - recent experience)
19
Q
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
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- Inadvertently make their schemas come true by the way they treat others
- When peoples’ expectations about another person influences their behaviour towards that person, causing the person’s behaviour to become consistent with the original expectation
20
Q
Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) Experiment
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Teachers’ (manipulated) expectation of their students’ potential influenced the students actual performance
Told some students were ‘late bloomers’: those students saw greater score improvements
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Embodied Cognition
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Form of automatic thinking whereby bodily sensations activate mental structures such as schemas
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Heuristics
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Too many schemas or not enough - use mental shortcuts, called judgemental heuristics
Not always accurate but useful
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Availability Heuristic
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A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind
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Representativeness Heuristic
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A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
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Base Rate Information
Info about the frequency of members of different categories in the population
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Cultural Determinants of Schemas
The content of our schemas is influenced by our culture
| We pay most attention to and best remember info that is important in our culture
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Analytic thinking style
they focus on the properties of objects/people without considering the surrounding context
Western cultures
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Holistic thinking style
they focus on the whole picture, i.e. the person/object and the surrounding context
East Asian cultures
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Phineas Gage
Damage to his frontal lobe with a tamping iron changed his social behaviour, leading psychologists to believe that there were neural aspects of behaviour
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Neurotypical Behaviour
People w/ autism, psychosis, antisocial personality disorder, and other disorders show differences in social behaviour compared to their neurotypical peers
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Controlled thinking
High-effort thinking
Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful (requiring mental energy)
Provides checks and balances for automatic thinking
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Controlled Thinking & Free Will
Sometimes an unconscious desire can lead to a conscious thought, leading us to believe we are exerting more conscious control over events than we really are
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Counterfactual Reasoning
Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been
Usually conscious and effortful, but not always voluntary and intentional
( imagine having avoided a negative event )
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Overconfidence barrier
people tend to have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgements- not usually as correct as they think they are
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Dong Seon-Chang
As soon as you see someone you automatically and pretty instantly perceive:
- Age, gender, and ethnicity
- Attire and dress style
- Posture and gestures
- Actions and intentions
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Social Perception
Defined as the study of how we form impressions of other people and make inferences about them
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Nonverbal Communication
the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words
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Non-verbal cues
- Facial expressions, tones of voice, gestures, body position & movement, use of touch, and eye gaze
- Facial expressions are the most significant channel of nonverbal communication
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Primary uses of Nonverbal Communication
Expressing emotion and eliciting empathy
Conveying attitudes
Communicating personalities
Substitutions for verbal messages
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Encode (NVC)
to express or emit nonverbal communication such as smiling or patting someone on the back
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Decode (NVC)
to interpret the meaning of nonverbal communication expressed by others
Ex. deciding the pat on the back is an expression of condescension not kindness
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NVC Research
Both context and culture influence how facial expressions are interpreted
Cross-cultural research support the universality of at least six facial expressions of emotions
Some researchers question the universal recognition of the basic facial expressions of emotion
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American vs Japanese Emotion Interpretation
The Japanese participants were more influenced by the expressions of group members surrounding the target figure than were the Americans
Another study found that in cultures where emotional control is the standard, focus is placed on the eyes to interpret emotions; in cultures where expression is accepted, focus is on the mouth
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Affect blends
where one part of a person’s face registers one emotion while another part registers a different emotion
-makes decoding difficult
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Display rules
culturally determined rules about which emotional expressions to show and how
-makes decoding difficult
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Display Rule Differences
Display of emotion
- America: men discouraged, women allowed
- Japan: women discouraged from smiling
Eye contact/gaze
- American: no eye contact = suspicious
- Nigeria. Puerto Rico, Thailand: eye contact disrespectful
Personal space:
- America: personal space
- Middle East, South American, Southern Europe: stand close to each other and touch frequently
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Emblems
Are nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture
Usually have direct verbal translations
Are not universal; each culture has devised its own
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First Impressions
- Form impressions of others, usually based on facial expressions within milliseconds
- First impressions can be influenced by schemas
- Once formed, initial impressions tend to persist
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Thin-Slicing
Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality or skill based on an extremely brief sample of behaviour
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Primacy Effect
When it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influence how we view info that we learn about them later
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Belief Perseverance
The tendency to stick with an initial judgement even in the face of new info that should prompt us to reconsider
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Implicit Personality Theories
- An implicit personality theory is a type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits
- guide the inferences that social perceivers make of other people
- people tend to attribute less positive characteristics to individuals described as having low self-esteem
- Physical attractiveness tends to lead people to infer that an individual has a desirable trait
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The Halo Effect
Refers to the tendency to conclude that a person has a number of positive attributes if they display a few good ones (and to infer a number of negative traits if the person exhibits an undesirable one)
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Causal Attributions
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Attribution theory (Fritz Heider)
Covariation theory (Harold Kelley
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Attribution theory
The way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behaviour
When deciding about causes of behaviour we can make one of two attributions
-Internal, dispositional attribution
-External situational attribution
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Internal Attribution
An inference that a person’s behaviour is due to something about him or her, such as their attitude, character, or personality
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External Attribution
an inference that a person’s behaviour is because of something about the situation he or she is in;
The assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation.
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Sociological Imagination
Knowing yourself so well you are able to “step out of yourself” and look at how society is working rather than how you view things
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Attribution Examples
Heider proposed we tend to see the causes of a person’s behaviour as internal - when we see a driver exhibiting signs of “road rage,” we are likely to assume it is their fault - if we knew the situation we might come up with external attribution (he’s rushing to the hospital)
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The Covariation Model
Internal vs. External Attributions
A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence of absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour occurs
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Consensus
concerns the extent to which other people behave the same way as the actor does toward the same stimulus
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Distinctiveness
concerns the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
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Consistency
concerns the extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances
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Internal Attribution occurs
Consensus = Low
Behaviour is unique to the person
Distinctiveness = Low
Person displays same behaviour w/ different targets and different situations
Consistency = High
The person's behaviour occurs reliably across occasions
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External Attribution occurs
Consensus = High
Other people behave similarly in the same situations
Distinctiveness = High
The person’s behaviour is specific to that situation or target
Consistency = High
The person's behaviour occurs reliably across occasions
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Fundamental attribution error:
Tend to make internal attributions for other people’s behaviour and underestimate the role of situational factors
Also referred to as the correspondence bias
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Consequences of FAE
Blaming the victim: The tendency to explain other people’s behaviour in dispositional (internal) terms can lead us to see those who are stigmatized or victimized as being responsible for their plight
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Perceptual Salience
The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people’s attention
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The role of perceptual salience
Tend to focus on person, not the surrounding situation
The person is “perceptually salient”
Use the focus of attention as a starting point
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Two-Step Attribution Process:
1. Make an internal attribution
Assume that a person’s behaviour was due to something about that person
Occurs quickly, spontaneously
2. Adjust attribution by considering the situation
May fail to make enough adjustment in second step
Requires effort, conscious attention
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Self-Serving Attributions
When people’s self esteem is threatened they make self-serving attributions:
A tendency to take credit for one’s own successes (internal attributions)
A tendency to blame others or the situation for one’s own failures (external attributions)
Can cause a person to overestimate their contribution to a shared task
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Defensive Attributions
Another way to deal with threats to self-esteem is to develop defensive attributions; explanations for behaviour that help us avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality.
Ex. Belief in a just world
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Belief in a just world
The assumption that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people.
Allows us to be optimistic about the future, BUT also creates a tendency to engage in victim blaming.
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The “Bias Blind Spot”
People realize biases in attribution can occur
| Believe other people more susceptible to attributional biases compared to self
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The Content of the Self
Self-recognition occurs as early as 18-24 months and develops into a full self-concept as we mature into adults
Self-concept is defined as the knowledge we have about who we are
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Self-schema
knowledge about the self (e.g., attitudes, preferences, traits) that influences what we notice, think about, and remember about ourselves.
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Self-Concept Clarity
The extent to which knowledge about the self is stable, clear and consistently defined
have low self-esteem
are prone to depression
more neurotic
chronic self analysis & rumination
more likely to believe happiness is achieved externally
self handicap
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Western cultures
independent view of themselves:
Defining themselves in terms of their own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others.
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Eastern cultures
interdependent view of themselves:
Defining themselves in terms of their relationships to others and recognizing that their behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others.
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Gender Differences
Women tend to have a relational interdependence of themselves and define themselves in terms of their relationships with others.
Men lean toward collective interdependence, and define themselves in terms of social groups, such as the sports teams to which they belong.
In collectivist cultures that emphasize interdependence (e.g. China, Ethiopia, Black South Africa), both men and women have an equal tendency to hold a relational view of the self.
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Introspection
process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
(8%) – when we do engage in introspection, the reasons for feelings and behaviours can be hidden from conscious awareness
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Self-Awareness Theory
proposes that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour to their internal standards and values
become judgmental observers of ourselves (as the outside observer would)
can be uncomfortable when confronted with disagreeable feedback about yourself
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Nisbett & Wilson
coined the term “telling more than we know” to describe people’s tendency to explain more about their feelings and behaviour than they actually know.
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Causal Theories
Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviours.
Often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., absence makes the heart grow fonder).
These theories can often be flawed, however
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G.H. Mead
- Learn about self through reactions and feedback from others - see one's social ‘objectiveness’ through their eyes
- Reflective Appraisals: what you think someone else thinks of you- if you value their opinion, you will likely internalize it
- The Generalized Other- internalized thought (e.g superego- what we should do and value)
- Fundamentally social in nature
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Self-Perception Theory
When we are unsure about our attitudes or feelings toward something, we look to our relevant behaviour for answers
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Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it, or find it interesting.
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures.
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overjustification effect
the case whereby people view their behaviour as caused by extrinsic reasons.
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performance-contingent rewards vs task-contingent rewards
Rewarding for performing well on a task (performance-contingent rewards) is less likely to decrease intrinsic interest than is rewarding for simply performing a task (task-contingent rewards)
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The looking-glass self
The looking-glass self describes the phenomenon of seeing ourselves through the eyes of others and incorporating their views into our self-concept.
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Downward social comparison
– Positive effect occurs only if we don’t feel vulnerable to the other’s negative outcome.
– The process whereby we compare ourselves to people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability.
– Also includes comparing current performance to past performance.
– A self-protective, self-enhancing strategy.
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Upward social comparison
– The process whereby we compare ourselves to people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability.
– It is usually threatening to our self-esteem.
– Can be a source of inspiration if we feel we can imagine achieving the same.
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Lockwood
Lockwood et al. (2005) found that European-Canadians were more motivated by positive (successful) role models; whereas Asian Canadians were more motivated by negative (unsuccessful) role models.
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Sociometer Theory
Sociometer theory proposes that self-esteem is a psychological gauge of the degree to which people perceive that they are relationally valued and socially accepted by other people.
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Self-Enhancement
– An unrealistically positive view of oneself.
Can result in higher self-esteem and life satisfaction.
Largely a phenomenon of individualist cultures.
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Self-Effacement
tendency to hold a negative view of oneself.
| Found in Asian (collectivist) cultures.
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Self-Verification Theory
Suggests that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether the self-concept is positive or negative
In some circumstances, this tendency can conflict with the desire to uphold a favourable view of oneself
The desire for accurate feedback depends on the dimension being assessed, and the person evaluating us.
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Nietzsche
Society gives you your apollonian aesthetic
| Your internalized self was put there by society to do what is best for society
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Jean-Paul Sartre
I don’t know how I will be seen by others- trying to know this creates anxiety
This anxiety is a fundamental reason why we have a self
Not just figuring out who you are, but we try to actively construct the RIGHT observable self for others: this can be a conscious reflective process
We try to make ourselves into the person we want to be: be liked and accepted
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William James
I have as many selves as there are people who recognize me
The YOU that’s you is different depending on who you are with
The self is regulated by the social environment
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Roy Baumeister
The thing that drives the development of ‘self’ is times when we make hard decisions
As the world has changed over the past 1000 years, there have been dramatic changes in what decisions we have to make
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Group
A group is a collection of three or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent.
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Group dynamics
The study of the nature of groups and their development, and the interrelationships of groups with individuals, other groups, and larger institutions.
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Why People Join Groups
Forming relationships with others fulfils a number of basic human needs – and is likely innate.
Groups help us define who we are as individuals.
Group membership also motivates people to become involved in social change.
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Social norms vs Social roles
Social norms specify how group members should behave.
| Social roles are shared expectations by group members on how particular people in the group are supposed to behave.
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Gender Roles
expectations about how men and women should behave and what professions they ought to pursue.
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Cohesion
A dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs
-Dynamic, multi-dimensional, instrumental, effective
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The multidimensional construct of Cohesion
Individual aspects: Beliefs group members hold about personal benefits of group membership
Group aspects: Beliefs members hold about the group as a collective
Task cohesion: Players’ willingness to work collectively to achieve the team’s objectives.
Social cohesion: The orientation toward developing and maintaining social relationships within the group.
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Group cohesiveness
Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them.
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Group diversity
Groups tend to be homogeneous, comprised of members who are alike in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions.
