FINAL - Gender Inequality in Labour Markets Flashcards
(28 cards)
What does the Labour Force refer to and define those it includes
Refers to the total # of ppl 15 years + who are either employed or actively seeking work in a given economy (employed and unemployed)
Employed:
- those who are working for pay or profit
- self employed in their own business, profession, or farm
- those on temporary leave from employment (vacation, labour disputes, personal reasons)
- underemployed = working less hours than a certain threshold, want to work more, and are available for it
Unemployed:
- those who do not have a job, are actively looking for work, and are available to start work
List the groups of people who are considered NOT in the labour force
- those who are neither working nor looking for work > includes:
- students not working or seeking work
- homemakers
- retirees
- individuals discouraged from seeking work
- people unable to work (due to disability or illness)
Define labour force participation. What is the labour force participation rate?
LFP : includes those who are employed or are actively looking for employment (employed + unemployed) > they are participating in the labour force
LFPR : measures the proportion of the working-age population that is in the labour force (working-age = 15-64)
How do we calculate the gender gap in labour force participation and what is the global gender gap?
Gender gap = men’s LFP rate - women’s LFP rate
Global gender gap = about 25% (men = 72% and women = 47%)
Explain the average gender gaps in LFP around the world - which countries have the highest gender gap? What does this show?
- in most countries, women’s LFPR is lower than men’s
- across almost all countries, higher proportions of women are working part time > reflects women taking on more household work, including the care of children > a significantly lower share of women work full time compared to men
- middle east and north Africa countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Algeria, and others have the highest gender gaps, exceeding 40%
- reflects cultural, religious, and institutional barriers to women’s formal employment
What are some of the gendered labour market structures that create gaps between men and women in LFP (specifically in pushing women into part-time work)
- unpaid care responsibilities pushing women into part-time work
- occupational segregation where women are overrepresented in sectors like care and education with flexible or part-time roles
- workplace cultures and lack of supportive policies, like affordable childcare and paid parental leave, affecting women’s ability to work longer hours
Globally, women earn ___ cents for every dollar men earn
What does this result in?
77
Results in income inequality between men and women and more women retiring into poverty
Define the gender pay gap. What are the two different kinds?
The difference in average hourly earnings between male and female employees as a percentage of male average hourly earnings
Unadjusted pay gap: the difference in average hourly wages
Adjusted pay gap: controls for education, experience, occupation, hours worked
In Canada, how have wage disparities changed over time among different group of women? For which groups is it the worst?
All groups of women in Canada have seen a reduction in the wage gap between 2007-2021, but gaps still persist from about 10-20%
*gaps are the worst for immigrant women who arrived as adults and indigenous women
What are the formulas for the gender pay ratio and the gender pay gap? (unadjusted)
gender pay ratio = average hourly wage of all female workers aged 15+ / average hourly wage of all male workers aged 15+
*decimal number
gender pay gap =
(1 - gender pay ratio) x100
OR
((male wage rate - female wage rate) / male wage rate) x 100
*percentage
Explain this statement: the gender wage gap is not static, but dynamic
- the gap widens as men and women age, get married, and have children
- it differs by occupation and among college graduates
What are the advantages and problems of the standard measure/unadjusted wage gap?
Advantages:
- simple and clear - just one percentage
- focuses on full-time > omits those who work sporadically which helps avoid distortions
- by using the median, it is less affected by the fact that there are more men than women with very high earnings
Problems:
- doesn’t adjust for working hours like the fact that the average full-time male employee works longer hours than the average full-time female employee
- ignores job flexibility and work conditions: ignores that relatively more men than women work on-call and irregular hours
Explain the equation for the adjusted gender pay gap
Adjusted gender wage gap = explained gap + unexplained gap
explained gap = reflects factors that can be statistically observed and accounted for (ex. differences in qualifications, education, experience, work hours, etc.)
unexplained gap = true inequality component > reflects discrimination and unmeasured differences in characteristics, employer preference, negotiation behaviour, etc.
Just list the different causes of the gender pay gap
- human capital - skills and experiences
- occupational segregation
- labour market discrimination
- glass ceiling
- motherhood penalty
Explain how human capital can be a cause of the gender pay gap
- human capital = skills, knowledge, experience, and competencies individuals possess and bring to the labour market
- these skills largely determine workers’ wages and are acquired through:
- education and training: which women may have less access to
- on-the-job training: women may receive less job training especially in the male-dominated or high-paying sectors, maybe because employers don’t want to invest as much in women
- work experience: women may have fewer years of experience due to career breaks, affecting pay and promotion prospects
Explain how occupational segregation can be a cause of the gender pay gap
occupational segregation = a groups’ overrepresentation or underrepresentation in certain jobs or fields of work *major driver of the gender wage gap
- can come from the belief that certain jobs are for men or women
- women concentrated in care, teaching, social work, etc. which tend to be lower pay and lower status occupations
> this isn’t because the work is less valuable, but that societal biases devalue the labour of marginalized groups > the overrepresentation of marginalized groups in occupations reduces their wages
- men concentrated in engineering, management, etc. which are higher paying
Why are women concentrated in low paying jobs?
- not enough role models for women in higher paying occupations
- barriers to female advancement in higher-paying occupations > business culture of constant availability, overtime work, on-call hours, answering emails on days off (“anytime-anywhere” culture) > most enterprises believe this is necessary for a top-level career > makes it difficult for women to compete with male colleagues bc they are juggling more family responsibilities
what are the three mechanisms of occupational segregation?
occupational crowding:
- crowds marginalized workers into lower paying jobs which reduces potential opportunities
uneven occupational integration:
- trends towards greater integration are slowing down
devaluation of work:
- work predominantly done by women is underpaid
Explain how labour market discrimination can be a cause of the gender pay gap - what are the different forms of discrimination?
TASTE FOR DISCRIMINATION: personal prejudice against working with or hiring a certain group of people
- employer discrimination > dislike or personal prejudice against hiring women > preference for men > offering lower wages to women or assigning them less desirable tasks for being female
- customer discrimination > preferring to be served by men, therefore businesses may hire more men
- employee discrimination > taste of discrimination against co-workers
STATISTICAL DISCRIMINATION:
- employers use group-level statistics (averages, stereotypes), to make decisions about individuals
- some of these stereotypes/stats: women may leave the work due to childcare, they are less likely to work overtime or relocate, they are less ambitious or assertive in seeking leaderships roles
- employers may assume women are less productive based on these stereotypes of women as a group, even if she is highly qualified and committed
What is the impact of labour market discrimination - what does it lead to?
- leads to inefficient hiring: the most qualified individual may be overlooked
- reinforced gender inequalities: fewer women in high-paying or leadership roles
Explain how the glass ceiling can be a cause of the gender pay gap
Glass ceiling = barriers that prevent women and minorities from rising to senior-level positions within an organization
> glass wall = the phenomenon of occupational segregation where female managers tend to be concentrated in less “strategic” areas as compared to men
> ex. female managers tend to be concentrated in business support functions, like HR, finance, and administration
> women have limited decision-making power or strategic input, and therefore limited opportunities to rise in the company
What is the leaky pipeline referring to?
Describes the disproportionate loss of women, and sometimes underrepresented groups, as they advance through educational and career pathways, especially in STEM fields.
It suggests that while many individuals enter a field, like academia, at the undergraduate level, fewer continue to higher positions, with women being particularly affected.
Explain how the motherhood penalty can be a cause of the gender pay gap
Motherhood penalty = the disadvantage the mothers face in the labour market compared to men and non-mothers > there is a negative relationships between a woman’s wage and the number of children she has
Fatherhood premium = have children is related to fathers’ earning boost > there is a positive relationship between a man’s wage and the number of children he has
What does an intersectional analysis suggest about labour market inequality
- deepens our understanding of labour market inequality by showing how race, gender, and class intersect to structure who gets access to high and low-paying jobs
> white men dominate the highest-paying occupations in the US
> men of colour and women dominate the lowest-paying occupations in the US
*shows that race and gender intersect to push people of colour, especially Black and Latinx into low paying jobs
