Final Review Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
What is the natural organization of life? (smallest to largest)
A
atom –> molecule –> cell –> tissue –> organ –> organ system –> organism
2
Q
What are the steps to the scientific method?
A
Ask a question, do background research, develop a hypothesis, test with an experiment, procedure working? yes- continue no- troubleshoot, analyze results, communicate results
3
Q
Where is most of the water in the body located?
A
The blood
4
Q
What organ system is responsible for maintaing fluid (water) balance of the body?
A
Lymphatic system
5
Q
Ionic Bond
A
Joins atoms of opposite electrical charges
6
Q
Covalent Bond
A
Occurs when atoms share two electrons, two hydrogen atoms have one electron in the outer shell & need one more to be complete
Polar: two atoms do not pull equally on electrons
Nonpolar: two atoms pull equally on electrons
7
Q
Hydrogen Bond
A
Weak link formed between a covalently bonded hydrogen atom and another atom taking part in a seperate covalent bond
8
Q
Acids vs Bases
A
Acid: pH of less than 7, high hydrogen and low OH-
Base: pH of more than 7, low hydrogen & high OH-
9
Q
How do buffers stabalize pH?
A
By absorbing and realsing H+ (biocarbonate in humans)
10
Q
What is the pH of the body?
A
7.35-7.45, differs in places like the stomach where a higher pH is needed to break down food
11
Q
What are the four macromolecules and there monomers & function?
A
Carbohydrate: monosacride, function: ATP
Fats (lipids): glycerol & free fatty acids, function: structural and membranes, energy storage, and signaling molecules
Proteins: peptide–> polypeptide–> amino acid. Function: Structure, activity, membran permiablity, homeostasis controls
Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA): nucleotides. FUnction: genetics/hereditary material, how to make protiens!
12
Q
DNA vs RNA
A
DNA: deoxyribose nucliec acid, deoxyribose sugar, A,T,C,G genetic material
RNA: Ribonucliec acid, ribose sugar, A,U,C,G create protiens
13
Q
Make up of an atom
A
All atoms consist of one or more proton (carry a positive charge marked by a plus sign), neutrons (carry no charge), electrons (have a negative charge marked by a minus sign). There are normally an equal number of protons & electrons
14
Q
Atomic number
A
Number of protons (bottom). Proton=atomic number
15
Q
Mass number
A
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (top)
16
Q
Atomic number
A
Protons = atomic number
Electrons = atomic number
Neutrons= atomic mass-atomic number
17
Q
Isotope
A
Varying form of an atom, same number of protons, different number of neutrons, can be more or fewer. Most elements have at least two isotopes. Isotopes behave the same as the standard form of chemical reactiosn
18
Q
Compound vs Mixture
A
Compound: combination of two or more elements, element proportions never vary. ex: water
Mixture: Two or more kinds of molecules mingle. Proportions may be different. Ex. sucrose and water
19
Q
Organic vs Inorganic compounds
A
Organic: contain carbon and at least one hydrogen atom
Inorganic: do not contain both hydrogen and carbon
20
Q
Prokaryotic cell vs Eukaroytic cell
A
Pro: cell is not at all complex, ex. bacteria
Eu: Cell has nucleus ex. animals, fungus, etc.
21
Q
Organelles
A
Nucleus, golgi body, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, mitochondrion, lysosome, & peroxisome
22
Q
Structure
A
Ribosomes & Centriole
23
Q
Nucleus
A
Organelle, protecting and controlling access to DNA
24
Q
Golgi Body
A
Organelle, modifying new peptide chains; synthesizing lipids
25
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle, protiens synthesized by the ribosomes on its outer membrane. Ribosomes are small non-membran-bound structures composed of proten and ribosomal RNA that function as protein factories
26
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle, synthesis of fatty acids and steriod hormones. SER has no attached ribosomes
27
Vesicles
Organelle, transporting, storing, or digesting substances in a cell
28
Mitochondrion
Organelle, making ATP by sugar break down
29
Lysosome
Organelle, intercellular digest
30
Peroxisome
Organelle, inactivation toxins
31
Ribosome
Structure, assembling polypeptide chains
32
Centriole
Structure, anchor for cytoskelton
33
Diffusion vs osmosis
D: movement of particles from one place to another, down their concentration gradient.
Osmosis: diffusion of a solvent (usually water)
34
What are the factors limiting membrane permeabilty? Whar are some ways cells overcome these?
Charge, size, direction on the concentration gradient. A cell over comes these by the type of transport completed.
Active: Need ATP or GTP to transport large and charged things up the concentration gradient
Passive: simple or facilitated diffusion.
Simple: Semi-permeable membrane just passes stuff through
Faciliatated: some type of transported (protien) is needed to get stuff across the membrane
35
What happens in each step of cell respiration?
Glycolysis: breakdown of glucose molecules, initial input of 2 ATP: phosphorylation, intermediate product of PGAL. Final products per glucose molecule: 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, net 2 ATP. Does not require oxygen.
Citric Acid Cycle: pyruvate + coenzyme A yields acetyl-CoA, TCA or Krebs cycle (cyclical pathway), which requires oxygen, in the mitochondria. Final product: 2 ATP, 6 CO2, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2
Step 3: Electron transport produces many ATP molecules: NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. 10 NADH and 2 FADH 2 from steps 1 and 2 carry electrons here, 32 ATP are made, O2 is the final electron acceptor in the chain to produce H20. H+ gradient is formed between the membranes. Formation of large amounts of ATP-by-ATP synthase
36
What are the central dogma of melecular bio?
DNA: genetic information found in the nucleus.
RNA: commonly found in ribosomes, function is to create proteins via translation, carries genetic info that is translated by the ribosomes into various proteins necessary for cellular processes.
Protein: amino acids that are used as energy
37
DNA --> RNA --> Amino Acids with codons
Gene serves as a template for RNA synthesis, process occurs in the nucleus using RNA polymerases. Begins at the “promoter” region. 5’ capped end for protection and binding the ribosome. Joins nucleotides together until a termination sequence is reached. DNA is decoded into RNA. Regulatory proteins: speed up or slow down transcription
38
What is gene expression?
Something shown in the geneotype is displayed on the phenotype
39
Base subsition Mutation
Swapping of one nucleotide for another during DNA replication
40
Aneuploidy mutation
The total number of chromosomes does not equal 46
41
Insertion mutation
Addition of one or more nucleotide into a segment of DNA
42
Deletion
Subtraction of one or more nucleotide into a segment of DNA
43
Inversion mutation
Segment of chromosome breaks off and reattaches in the reverse direction
44
Translocation mutation
Piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome
45
Transposable element mutation
Change in their position creates or reverses mutation thereby altering the cell's geneotype
46
Stages of meiosis
Meiosis
Interphase: germ cell copies its DNA
Prophase: chromosomes condense, each chromosome has two sister chromatids. Crossing over occurs
Metaphase 1: Paired chromosomes are oriented toward opposite poles
Anaphase 1: Chromosome disjunction (separation of paired chromosomes), independent assortment (separates homologous move toward opposite poles
Telophase 1: chromosomes reach the poles; nuclei form. Spindle apparatus is disassembled, daughter cells separated by membranes. Reduced chromosomes to 23 in each nucleus. Each chromosome still has two sister chromosomes to 23 in each nucleus. Each chromosome still has two sister chromatids
Prophase II: chromosomes attach to a new spindle apparatus. Sister chromatids are attached to spindle fibers from opposite poles
Metaphase II: Chromosomes align at equatorial plane
Anaphase II: Centromeres split, chromatid disjunction– sister chromatids move toward opposite poles
Telophase II: Separated chromatids gather at poles; daughter nuclei form. Each chromatid is now called a chromosome. Each daughter nucleus contains a haploid set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis: The haploid daughter cells are separated by cytoplasmic membranes
47
Stages of mitosis
1. Prophase: coiling and condensing of the chromosomes, chromosomes condense into thick rods. Microtubules forming– i.e. spindle formation. Nuclear membrane begins breaking up. If present, microtubules move centrioles to the opposite poles
2. Metaphase: duplicated chromosomes align midway (metaphase plate) between the poles of the cell. Duplicated chromosomes attach to the spindle– two sets of microtubules extending from each centrosome (2 centrioles in each centrosome). Overlap in the “equator” region. Sister chromatids moved via the spindle apparatus, shape forms an aster
3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids split; become independent chromosomes. Pulled by the microtubules toward the pole region. Spindle elongates, pushing the poles further apart
4. Telophase: chromosomes no longer connected to the spindle. Chromosomes are threadlike, once again forming chromatin. Nuclear envelope forms around each cluster
Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm. Begins toward the end of anaphase, a cleavage furrow forms. Microfilaments (actin) pull the plasma membrane inward all around the cell. Pinches the cell in two
48
Dominante vs recessive
D: trait is expressed
R: Trait is overpowered by the dominant trait
49
Homozygous vs Heterozygous
Homo: two of the same genotypes-- aa, AA
Heter: One dominant and one recessive. Dominant will overshadow expression of the recessive allele
50
Allele
Different versions of the same gene, each inherited from one parent- genetic variations that lead to phenotypic ones
51
Locus
Specific location on a chromosome
52
Chromosome
A threadlike structre of nucleic acids and protien found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic info in the form of genes
53
Chromatid
Each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell divsion
54
Carrier
When a person does not have the phenotype but has the genotype
55
Rule of segergation
Based on preditionce from one-trait crosses. Diploid cells have pairs of genes for each trait; the teo genes of each pair are seperated from each other (during meiosis), so they end up in different gamates
56
Rule of independent assortment
Based on predictions from two-trait crosses. At meiosis, the gene pairs of one trait are sorted out for distribution into one gamete or another independtly of how the gene pair of another trait are sorted out
57
Pleiotrpy
Wide-range effect of one gene ex. sickle cell disease
58
Expressivity
relative capacity of a gene to affect the phenotype of the organism of which it is a part of
59
Codominance
Heterozygous for a trait but both alleles are expressed
60
Multi-allele system
A gene that has three or more alleles
61
Incomplete dominance
When one allele of a pair is not fully dominanr over its partner. ex wavy hair
62
Penetrance
The likelihood that a clinical condition will occur when a particular genotype is present
63
Polygenic
Combined expression of several genes ex. eye color
64
The naming scheme for epithelial tissue is based off of...
Layers and shape-- simple, stratifed, pseustratifed & cubodial, squamous, transitional, columar
65
Smooth muscle tissue is found
On the surface of hollow organs
66
Cubodial epithelium is found
Lining the ducts
67
The muscle in the heart is called
Cardiac muscle or myocardium
68
In general, cells will be in this arragement to provide protection
Stratifed epithelial
69
Path of blood through the heart
Vena cava, right atrium, tricspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta
70
Divergent vs covergent
D: artieres, carry blood away from the heart
C: veins, carry blood to the heart
Pulonary viens are the exception of the direction branching becaue they carry oxygen
71
What is respiration & where does it occur
The action of breathing, occurs in the lungs
72
External vs internal respiration
External: The exchange of gasses with the external enviroment, occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
Internal: Exchange of gases with the internal enviroment and occurs in the tissues. The actual exchange of gases occurs due to simple diffusion
73
What is ventalation and where does it occur?
The flow of air into and out of the alveoli, occurs in the aveoli
74
What is surfactant made out of and what is it's role?
Phosolipids, lowering the surface tension of the air-liquid interface and prevents alveolar collaspe at the end-expiration
75
Active Immunity Vs Passive immunity
A: Results from production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the prescence of an antigen
P: Short-term immunity as a result of the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal
76
What is a pathogen?
Anything that can cause disease other than those that cause physical damage.
Living: Bacteria, fungus, protozoa
Nonliving: virus, prion
77
Nonspecific vs specific immunity
Nonspecific: Physical barriers and some cells that are really good at identifying what should not be in your body. Inborn, same defense regardless of pathogen effect
Specific: Adapative immunity (produces antibodies against things that you have already gone through). Body building immunity ex. antibodies
78
Virus
DNA/RNA that attaches to your cells, nonliving, lipid or protien coat. Ex: flu, covid, hiv
79
Prion
Misfolded protien- since one is misfolded it causes others to be misfolded, nonliving
80
Bacteria
Living, prokaryote, unicellular. Ex: e coli. euberculosis, pnemunia
81
Fungus
Living, eukaryote, unicellular. Ex: ring worm
82
Protozoa
Living, similar to bacteria, can be more complex
83
First line of defense
Physical and chemical barriers. Ex: gastric acid, poop, urine, vomit, saliva, skin, sweat, seubum
Intergumaentary system (skin): largest surface area of any organ, protection, maintenance of homeostasis, sensory, synthesis
84
Second line of defense
Internal cellular & chemical defense: phagocytic leukoyocytes, interferons, inflamatory, fever (high temp helps kill off virus, alters other cells that something is going on), antimicrobial protiens, neutrophils, histamine (brings lots of cells to the infected areas to fight off infection). More specific responses than the first line
85
Primary
Red bone marrow: where white and red blood cells are made
Thymus gland: makes t cells (viral infections b cells are bacterial infections)
86
Secondary
Spleen: recycles nutrients
Lymphinods: pockets of lymph
87
Phagocytosis
Process of a cell engulfing a foriegn thing, phagocyte is the cell doing it. Macrophages: cell that can acomplish this
88
Interferon
Attacks virally infected cells, stops cell before it can replicate, helps prevent the spread of disease to other cells
89
Third line of defense
Lymphocytes: b & t cells, able to acmpish very specific responses, a lot of unique specific types that we can use, memory (storage for next time)
Effector cells: clear a current infection
Memory cells: ready for invader to enter second or third time
Antibody: Specific shape that they can bond to an antigen (markers on cells that tell it whether or not it belongs on the cell)
T cells: Communicare inbetween immune cells (telling them what antibodies to make
90
What type of muscle do we find in the digestive tract?
Smooth muscle, involuntary
91
What kind of tissue is found in the small intestine & what special features make it ideal for this location?
Simple columnar epithelium: it allows for highly efficient secretion of acid and production of digestive enzymes
92
What organ secretes hormones into the small intestine?
Pancreas
93
What organ stores bile? What is bile used for?
gallbladder. Break down fats
94
Blood leaving the small intestine travels to this organ...
the liver
95
Mechanical vs chemical digestion
Mechanical digestion: breaking down food mechanically, increases the surface area of the food, primarly done in the mouth by the teeth
Chemical: breaking down food chemically, increasinf surface volume, and changing the chemical makeup of the food. Fat digestion occurs in the stomach and is broken down lipase. Starch: moth, salivary amylase. Protein: stomach, lipase
96
What is the flow of food through the digestive tract?
Mouth, pharyns, epiglottis, esophagus, esophagus sphincter, stomach, pyloric sphincter, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, illeum), large intestine (cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon), rectum, anal canal
The mouth: 32 teeth begin mechanical digestion. Incisors front of mouth, canine tear food, premolars & molars: grind food. Saliva contains enzymes which begin chemical digestion of startches. Salavia is mostly water and has a biocarbonate buffer, mucins, and salivary amylase begins startch digestion. There are three glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
Pharynx: swallowing is the transition from the mouth to the stomach via the esophagus and includes voluntary and involuntary phases. Epagutus prevents food from “going down the wrong tube”. The trachea is in the front and the esophagus is in the back, it begins with a voluntary swallow and pretty much everything else is involuntary. After it goes through the spintectur, it is in the stomach.
Stomach: activily acidifies the enviroment, connects to the brain to tell the body when to eat. Parietal cells and chief cells secrete things into the lumen. Starts to digest protien
Small intestine: Absorbs most nutrients, monomers are there to absorb things. Duodenum is the first section, jejunum is the longest section of your small intestine (where a lot of absorbtion happens), illeum right before the large intestine. Site of protien digestion (peptidases), lipase helps break down fats, increase the surface area of the fats–> bile breaks it apart into small bubbles. Lipase breaks down into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Know what amylase does
97
What are the 5 hallmark signs of inflammation
Heat, redness, swelling, pain, loss of function
98
What tissue do we find linging the digestive tract, and what features make it specialized for its role here?
Simple columnar epithelium. This tissue provides an impermeable barrier against any bacteria that could be ingested but is permeable to any necessary ions
99
What are the functions & structure of the digestive tract
Mucosa: Provides a barrier against foreign particles, captures them in its sticky mucus and clears them out
Submucosa: Allows mucosa to move flexibly during peristalsis. It is a connective tissue layer deep to and supporting the mucosa.
muscularis mucosa: smooth muscle, provides perpetual motor function that keeps the mucosa in flux.
Serosa: Nervous tissue, secretes serous fluid to allow lubricated sliding movements between opposing surfaces
100
What are the main steps of the digestive process?
Ingestion: intake of the food via mouth
Digestion: mechanically or chemically breaking down food into their subunits
Movement: food must be moved along the GI tract in order to fulfill all functions; mixing
Absorption: movement of nutrients across the GI tract wall to be delieveref to the cell via the blood
Elimination: removal of the indigestible molecules; defecation (things that your body could not use while urinary tract is waste from products that your body picked through)
