Final Review Flashcards
(322 cards)
1
Q
Observing something without manipulating any variables
A
Naturalistic observation
2
Q
Studying 1 person
Not generalizable
A
Case study
3
Q
Combines results of multiple studies to identify overall trends or effects
A
Meta-Analysis
4
Q
Examines the relationship between 2 or more variables without manipulating them (negative correlation vs positive correlation)
A
Correlation
5
Q
Self-reporting and a series of questions
A
survey
6
Q
If a research study doesn’t manipulate any variables, what is it called?
A
Non-experimental
7
Q
Inaccurately reporting on surveys
A
self-report bias
8
Q
A precise description of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a specific study
A
Operational Definition
9
Q
Method of choosing participants where every member of the population is represented
A
random sampling
10
Q
The sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the population being studied
A
representative sample
11
Q
When the people you pick for your study aren’t representative of the population
A
sampling bias
12
Q
When a researcher’s expectations or behavior unintentionally influence the outcome of a study
A
Experimenter bias
13
Q
Rating scale to measure attitudes or opinions ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”
A
Likert scale
14
Q
Measurement that identifies a single score to represent a whole distribution of scores
A
central tendency
15
Q
How varied the data is
A
variance
16
Q
When the graph has two peaks, which means not a lot of people scored in the middle
A
Bimodal distribution
17
Q
Numerical value ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 (closer to 1.0 = more correlation)
A
Correlation coefficient
18
Q
Measure of strength or magnitude of a relationship or difference between variables in a study (more ____ ____=more of an effect)
A
effect size
19
Q
Means that the outcome is not due to chance
A
Statistically significant
20
Q
A p-score less than 0.05 means ____
A
It is statistically significant
21
Q
Unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of humans by controlling reproduction, often through discriminatory practices
A
Eugenics
22
Q
How much of our behaviors are based on genetics
A
Heritability
23
Q
What are the two subcategories of the Peripheral Nervous System
A
Somatic
Autonomic
24
Q
Controls voluntary movements
A
Somatic
25
controls Involuntary movements (heartbeat and digestion)
Autonomic
26
What are the two subcategories of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
27
A neuron's pit crew that supports it
Glial cells
28
A type of neuron that transmits info from sensory receptors (eyes, skin, ears, etc.)
sensory
29
A type of neuron that carries info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Motor
30
Type of neuron in the brain and spinal cord that processes info by connecting sensory neurons to motor neurons
Interneuron
31
Stable, negative electrical charge of a neuron when not firing
resting potential
32
Minimum level of stimulation required to cause a neuron to fire and generate an action potential
Stimulus threshold
33
Neuron fires completely once stimulus threshold reached or doesn't fire at all
Stronger stimulation doesn't produce a stronger action potential
All or None law
34
Positively charged sodium ions enter the neuron, so the inside becomes less negative and triggers an action potential if the threshold is met
depolarization
35
A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon when the neuron fires after reaching the threshold
action potential
36
A short time after a neuron fires, it can't fire again because it's recharging and returning to resting potential
Refractory period
37
A chemical messenger that transmits signals across the synapse between neurons
neurotransmitters
38
Increases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire an action potential
Excitatory neurotransmitter
39
Decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire an action potential
inhibitory
40
Type of neurotransmitter that is involved in movement, reward, motivation, and attention
Dopamine
41
A type of neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and emotional stability
Serotonin
42
Type of neurotransmitter that increases alertness, arousal, and prepares the body for stress
norepinephrine
43
A type of neurotransmitter that excites neurons and plays a key role in learning and memory
Glutamate
44
A type of neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity and helps calm the nervous system
GABA
45
A type of neurotransmitter that controls muscle action and supports learning and memory
Acetycholine
46
A type of neurotransmitter that relieves pain and creates feelings of pleasure or euphoria
Endorphins
47
A type of neurotransmitter that carries pain messages and helps detect bodily discomfort
Substance P
48
A collection of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and mood
Endocrine system
49
Part of the endocrine system that increases heart rate, breathing, and energy in response to stress, part of the fight-or-flight response
adrenaline
50
Part of the endocrine system that helps regulate body weight by signaling the brain to reduce appetite when fat stores are sufficient
leptin
51
Part of the endocrine system that stimulates hunger by signaling the brain when the stomach is empty and energy is needed
ghrelin
52
Part of the endocrine system that controls sleep-wake cycles by increasing feelings of drowsiness in response to darkness
melatonin
53
Part of the endocrine system that promotes social bonding, trust, and emotional connection during close interpersonal interactions
Oxytocin
54
Chemical substances that alter perceptions, mood, consciousness, or behavior by affecting the brain and nervous system
psychoactive drugs
55
A type of psychoactive drug where a chemical binds to a receptor and activates it, mimicking or enhancing the effect of a neurotransmitter
Agonist
56
A type of psychoactive drug where a chemical binds to a receptor and blocks it, preventing the neurotransmitter from activating the receptor and reducing its effect
antagonist
57
A type of psychoactive drug that prevents neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed, increasing their presence in the synapse
reuptake inhibitor
58
A type of psychoactive drug that increases nervous system activity, boosting alertness, energy, and mood (caffeine and nicotine)
stimulants
59
59
A type of psychoactive drug that slows down nervous system activity, reducing arousal and causing relaxation or drowsiness (alcohol and benzodiazepines)
Depressants
60
A type of psychoactive drug that distorts perceptions, thoughts, and sensations, often causing hallucinations
(marijuana and psilocybin)
Hallucinogens
61
A type of psychoactive drug that relieves pain and produces euphoria by mimicking endorphins (Heroin and Fentanyl)
Opioids
62
The oldest and innermost part of the brain is responsible for automatic survival functions like breathing, heartbeat, and sleep
Brain stem
63
Part of the brain stem that controls vital life functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure
Medulla
64
Part of the brain stem that regulates alertness, attention, and arousal by filtering incoming sensory information
Reticular activating system
65
Part of the brain stem that coordinates voluntary movement, balance, posture, and motor learning
Cerebellum
66
A group of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and behavior
Limbic system
67
Part of the limbic system that relays sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain for processing, except smell
Thalamus
68
Part of the limbic system that regulates basic biological needs like hunger, thirst, temperature, and controls the pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
69
Part of the limbic system that is considered the "master gland," which releases hormones and directs other glands in the endocrine system
pituitary gland
70
Part of the limbic system that is involved in forming, organizing, and storing new memories
Hippocampus
71
Part of the limbic system that processes emotions, especially fear, aggression, and threat detection
Amygdala
72
Responsible for higher-level functions like thinking, planning, language, and consciousness
cerebral cortex
73
part of the cerebral cortex
It is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them
Corpus callosum
74
Part of the cerebral cortex that is the region at the back of the brain that processes visual information
occipital lobe
75
Part of the cerebral cortex that processes auditory information and is involved in memory and language comprehension
Temporal lobe
76
Part of the cerebral cortex that processes touch, spatial awareness, and sensory integration
parietal lobe
77
Part of the cerebral cortex that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations; located in the parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex
78
Part of the cerebral cortex that is involved in decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and voluntary movement
frontal lobe
79
Part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for reasoning, judgment, impulse control, and complex thought; located at the front of the frontal lobe
prefrontal cortex
80
Part of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary muscle movements, located in the rear of the frontal lobe
motor cortex
81
Part of the cerebral cortex that controls speech production; typically found in the left frontal lobe
Broca's area
82
Part of the cerebral cortex that is involved in understanding language; typically found in the left temporal lobe
Wernicke's area
83
Surgical operation that cuts the corpus callosum, preventing communication between the brain's hemispheres, often used to treat severe epilepsy
Split-brain procedure
84
Different areas of the cerebral cortex have specific functions, such as vision in the occipital lobe or motor control in the frontal lobe
cortex specialization
85
The concept that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
Contralateral hemispheric organization
86
Brain's ability to physically change its structure in response to learning, experience, or injury
brain plasticity
87
A technique that records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp, often used to study sleep or seizures
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
88
A brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structures
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
89
A research method that involves deliberately damaging brain tissue to study the effects on behavior or mental functions
Lesioning studies
90
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including thoughts, feeling, sensations, and experiences
Consciousness
91
The brain's internal timing system that regulates physiological processes over time
biological clock
92
The 24 hour cycle of biological processes, like sleep and wakefulness
circadian rythm
93
A sleep stage where brain activity is high, vivid dreams occur, and the body experiences temporary muscle paralysis (Paradoxical sleep)
REM
94
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following periods of REM deprivation
REM Rebound
95
What is the sleep cycle
NREM stage 1
NREM stage 2
NREM stage 3
REM
96
The idea that sleep allows the body and brain to recover, repair, and grow after daily wear and tear
restorative theory
97
The idea that sleep evolved to keep organisms safe during times when being awake would be dangerous or inefficient
adaptive theory
98
The theory of dreaming that suggests dreams are brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep
Activation-synthesis theory
99
Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks and sometimes muscle weakness often triggered by strong emotions
narcolepsy
100
Muscle paralysis during REM sleep fails, causing people to physically act out dreams
REM sleep behavior disorder
101
Performing complex behaviors like walking or taking while in non-rem sleep, with no memory of the activity
Somnambulism
102
Process of converting physical energy from stimuli like light or sound into neural signals that the brain can interpret
transduction
103
a specialized cell that detects specific types of sensory stimuli and initiates transduction
sensory receptor
104
The minimal amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. Includes all major senses
absolute threshold
105
The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time
Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
106
The JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus not a fixed amount
webers law
107
Focuses light onto the retina
lens
108
Converts light into neural signals
retina
109
sharpens central vision
Fovea
110
Transmits visual information to the brain
Visual nerve
111
The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Accommodation
112
Nearsightedness means the eyes is _____
squished
113
Farsightedness means the eye is
pulled taller
114
Detect black, white, gray, important for night and peripheral vision
Rods
115
Detect color and fine detail work best in bright light
cones
116
Retinal cells that receive visual info from bipolar cells and sends it to the brain
ganglion cell
117
Retinal cells that transmit signals from rods and cones to ganglion cells
Bipolar cell
118
The retina contains 3 types of color receptors-red, green, and blue--which combine to make all colors
Trichromatic theory of color vision
119
Color perception is controlled by opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) and one color in each pair inhibits the other
opponent-process theory of color vision
120
The area in the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye; it contains no photoreceptors, so no visual info is detected there
blind spot
121
a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations into neural signals
cochlea
122
A structure inside the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound and helps detect different frequencies
Basilar membrane
123
Sensory receptors located on the basilar membrane that convert sound vibrations into electrical signals sent to the brain
Hair cells
124
The percieved highness or lowness of a sound, determined by the frequency of the sound wave
Pitch
125
The height of a sound wave, which determines the loudness or volume of the dound
Amplitude
126
The process of how the brain determines the location of the sound based on differences in timing and intensity between ears
sound localization
127
Hearing loss caused by damage or blockage in the outer or middle ear that prevents sound from being conducted to the inner ear
Conduction hearing loss
128
Hearing loss resulting from damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve, often permanent and typically affecting clarity of sound
Sensorineural hearing loss
129
sense of smell, which detects airborne chemicals through receptors in the nose
olfaction
130
the sense of taste, which detects chemicals in food through receptors on the tongue
gustation
131
What are the six tastes
sweet
sour
salty
bitter
umami
oleogustus
132
Sensory receptors that detect pain or potential harm to the body
Nociceptors
133
The theory that the spinal cord contains a "gate" that either blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain, and this gate can be influenced by factors like attention, emotions, or competing sensations
The gate control theory of pain
134
Detect body position and movement of individual body parts through receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints
Kinesthetic sense
135
Specialized sensory receptors located in muscles and joints that provide info about body position and movement
proprioceptors
136
Detects balance, head position, and movement to help maintain posture and coordination
vestibular sense
137
Perception that begins with sensory input, where the brain builds understanding from raw data received by the senses
bottom-up
138
Perception driven by experience, expectations, and prior knowledge, which shapes how sensory information is interpreted
top-down
139
A perspective in psychology that emphasizes our tendency to perceive patterns and wholes rather than just individual components by organizing sensory information into meaningful forms. It explains how we naturally group objects and see the bigger picture instead of separate parts
Gestalt psychology
140
How we perceive depth in a cube vs no depth in a square
retinal disparity
141
A cue that use the inward turning of our eyes to judge our close an object is
covergence
142
Depth cues available to each eye alone that help us judge distance and depth
Monocular cues
143
Our brains ability to recognize that objects remain the same despite changes in appearance due to lighting, distance, or angle
door closing and opening is still a door
perceptual constancies
144
Interpreting new experiences by fitting them into existing schemas
assimilation
145
Adjusting or creating new schemas to better fit new info or experiences
accomodation
146
________ is the general category of dog
________ is what we think of when we think of a dog which is base on our past _______
concept
prototype
schemas
147
A step-by-step problem solving method that guarantees correct answer
algorithm
148
Mental shortcut that helps us make judgements quickly but can lead to errors
heuristic
149
Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype
Representative Heuristic
150
Tendency to approach problems using strategies that have worked in the past, even if a better solution exists
mental set
151
The unconscious activation of associations in memory that influence perception, behavior, or response
Priming
152
The way info is presented that can affect decisions and judgements
framing
153
Mistaken belief that if something happens more often than normal, it's less likely to happen again soon even if each event is independent
gambler's fallacy
154
tendency to keep investing in something because of past costs, when when it no longer makes sense
finishing a TV show you don't really like anymore because you feel obligated to
sunk-cost fallacy
155
Set of mental processes that help with planning, focusing attention, remembering instructions, and managing multiple tasks effectively
Executive Function
156
A cognitive bias that limits a person to using objects only in the way they are traditionally used, making it harder to solve problems creatively
Functional Fixedness
157
The cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information needed for tasks like reasoning, learning, and comprehension
Working memory
158
Part of working memory responsible for directing attention, coordinating activities, and managing the flow of information between the different subsystems
Central Executive
159
Part of working memory that processes and temporarily holds verbal and auditory information, such as spoken words or sounds
phonological loop
160
Part of working memory that processes and temporarily holds visual and spatial info like images shapes and arrangement of objects in space
visuospatial sketchpad
161
Type of long-term memory that involves conscious recall of facts, events, and experiences that can be intentionally retrieved and stated
Explicit memory
162
Type of explicit memory that involved recall of personal experiences
Episodic memory
163
Type of explicit memory that involved recall of general knowledge, facts, and concepts not tied to personal experience
Semantic memory
164
A type of long-term memory that involves unconscious, automatic recall of skills, habits, and learned associations without conscious effort
implicit memory
165
A type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks and actions, such as riding a bike or typing without needing to consciously think about each step
procedural memory
166
Ability to remember to carry out future intentions or planned actions like taking medication or attending a meeting
prospective memory
167
the process by which repeated activation of the synapses strengthens the connection between neurons, resulting in enhanced memory and learning
Long-term potentiation
168
Process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored and processed in memory
Encoding
169
Memory aid that uses associations, patterns, or visual imagery to help encode and retrieve info more easily
method of loci
170
Spacing learning out over time is better than cramming
The spacing effect
171
Cramming
massed practive
172
Spacing learning out over time
Distributed practice
173
the tendency to remember the first and last things on a list
serial position effect
174
Process of maintaining encoded info over time for future use
Storage
175
Repeating info in head to keep it active in short term memory
maintenance rehearsal
176
linking new info to existing knowledge to create associations
elaborative rehearsal
177
Ability to remember past experience but inability to recall new memories
Anterograde amnesia
178
Inability to remember past experience but can form new memories
retrograde amnesia
179
Tendency to recall info more easily when in the same physical environment or context in which the info was initially learned
context dependent memory
180
Tendency to recall info that matches the emotional state a person is currently in like recalling sad memories when you're sad
Mood Congruent memory
181
Tendency to recall info better when in same physiological or mental state as when info was encoded like recalling info learned while intoxicated only when intoxicated
State Dependent memory
182
Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, including ability to monitor, regulate, and evaluate cognitive activities like learning and problem-solving
Metacognition
183
Inability to form a memory because the info was never processed and stored in the first place
like trying to draw an exact replica of a penny without a reference
Encoding failure
184
Idea that forgetting occurs because similar memories compete and interfere with one another
interference theory
185
When old info makes it hard to remember new info
proactive
186
when new info makes it harder to remember old info
retroactive
187
Unconscious blocking of anxiety-inducing memories from conscious awareness
repression
188
Concept that memory is not a perfect recording but is built and shaped by personal beliefs, experiences, and suggestions
Constructive memory
189
When misleading or incorrect info presented after an event alters how the original even is remembered or interpreted
misinformation effect
190
Inability to remember where, when, or how a memory was formed even though info was remembered
Source confusion
191
Memory error where vividly imagining an event increases confidence that it actually happened even if it didn't
imagination inflation
192
Test is valid if it accurately measures ______ validity (does it measure the concept?) and ______ validity (does it predict future performance or behavior accurately?)
Construct
Predictive
193
the consistency of a test in producing similar results over repeated administrations or across different parts of the test
Test reliability
194
Anxiety and concern that individuals may feel when they fear confirming negative stereotypes about their social group
stereotype threat
195
Performance boost individuals may experience when they are aware of positive stereotypes about their social group
stereotype life
196
IQ tests have increased as time has gone on
Flynn Effect
197
Measures a person's knowledge or proficiency in a specific subject or skill that has been learned
AP Psych test
Drivers Test
Achievement Test
198
Designed to measure a person's potential to learn or succeed in a particular area or skill
SAT
ACT
Aptitude Test
199
Harmful agents or substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems if the fetus is exposed to them during prenatal development
teratogens
200
Cognitive process of incorporating new info into existing schemas without changing the schema
assimilation
201
Cognitive frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret info based on our previous experiences and knowledge
Schemas
202
Cognitive process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information that does not fit into current schemas
accommodation
203
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)
Preoperational Stage (2-7)
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)
Formal Operational Stage (adolescence and adulthood)
Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development
204
A teaching technique in which a knowledgeable guide provides successive levels of temporary support to help learners reach higher levels of understanding and skill within their zone of proximal development
scaffolding
205
Inside circle is what learners can do unaided
Middle circle is the zone of proximal development
Outer circle is what you can't do
Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
206
Vygotsky's concept of the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgable individual
Zone of proximal development
207
Ability to use learned knowledge and experience; tends to increase with age
Crystallized Intelligence
208
Ability to reason quickly and abstractly, especially in novel situations; tends to decline with age
fluid intelligence
209
Smallest units of sound in a language that distinguish words from one another
phenomes
210
Smallest unit of meaning in a language
words, prefixes, and suffixes
Morphemes
211
The rules and processes used to derive meaning from words and sentences in a language
semantics
212
Part of the Ecological systems theory:
Immediate environments an individual directly interacts with
family
school
peers
Microsystem
213
Part of the Ecological systems theory:
Connections between different parts of the microsystem
how a child's home influences school performance
Mesosystem
214
Part of the Ecological systems theory:
Indirect environments that affect the individual through their influence on someone close
a parent's workplace
Exosystem
215
Part of the Ecological systems theory:
The larger cultural and societal influences that shape an individual's experiences
Laws
Cultural norms
Economic systems
Macrosystem
216
Part of the Ecological systems theory:
Dimension of times, reflecting life transitions, and historical events that impact development
Moving, divorce, pandemics
Chronosystem
217
Parenting style that is strict, controlling and marked by high demands, and low responsiveness
rules are enforced without explanation or warmth
Authoritarian
218
Parenting style that is lenient with high warmth but few rules or expectations
Parents are nurturing but don't set firm boundaries
Indulgent Permissive
219
A disengaged parenting style with low responsiveness and few demands
Parents are uninvolved and emotionally detached
Indifferent Permissive
220
A balanced parenting style with high expectations and high responsiveness
Parents set clear rules but are supportive and communicative
Authoritative
221
Bond between child and caregiver marked by uncertainty, anxiety, or fear, often due to inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
222
Child is clingy and extremely distressed by separation but also resistant or angry upon care giver return showing ambivalence
Insecure Anxious attachment
223
Child shows confusing inconsistent behaviros
Insecure Disorganized Attachment
224
Diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without unconditioned stimulus
extinction
225
Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and no exposure to the conditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery
226
Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli that don't signal the UCS
Discrimination
227
Tendency for stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit same conditioned response
Generalization
228
Process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus creating a second (weaker) stimulus
Higher-order conditioning
229
Behavioral therapy technique that replaces an unwanted conditioned response with a more desirable one by associating the feared stimulus with a positive stimulus
Counterconditioning
230
Form of classical conditioning in which an organism learns to avoid a food after just one pairing with illness even if the illness occurs hours later
Taste aversion
231
Decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, without any associated consequence
Habituation
232
Learning process in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow them (rewards and punishments
Operant Conditioning
233
Procedure in operant conditioning were reinforcers guide behavior towards closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Shaping
234
Small steps or behaviors that gradually resemble the final desired behavior each of which is reinforced during shaping
specifically the steps taken to shape a behavior
Successive Approximation
235
predictable schedule
fixed
236
has to do with time
interval
237
Unpredictable schedul
variable
238
Has to do with numbers
ratio
239
tendency for animals learned behaviors to revert back to biologically instinctive patterns
Instinctive drift
240
Behavior that is accidentally reinforced and repeated because the individual mistakenly associates it with a reward
superstitious behavior
241
Mental state in which an individual who has experienced repeated uncontrollable negative events stops trying to change their situation
learned helplessness
242
Theory that proposes people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating others
social-learning theory
243
Learning that occurs by watching the consequences of another person's behavior, rather than through direct experience
vicarious conditioning
244
The individual whose behavior is observed and potentially imitated in the process of social learning
modeling
245
Learning that takes place without immediate reinforcement and remains hidden until there is motivation to demonstrate it
latent learning
246
mental representation of the layout of one's environment, used to navigate or recall spatial relationships
cognitive map
247
sudden realization or "aha" moment in problem solving with the solution comes without trial and error
insight learning
248
Theory that explains how individuals interpret the causes of behavior, attributing them either to internal dispositions or external situations
attribution error
249
Explains behavior by focusing on internal factors like personality traits, abilities, and character
Dispositional attributions
250
Explains behavior by considering external factors like environmental influences, social, pressure, and circumstances
situational attributions
251
Tendency to overemphasize internal factors like personality when explaining others' behavior while underestimating situational influences
fundamental attribution error
252
Occurs when people attribute their own actions to external factors but explain other behaviors using internal characteristics
actor-observer bias
253
Tendency to attribute personal successes to internal factors like effort or ability while blaming failures on external circumstances
self-serving bias
254
Belief that you control your life
internal locus of control
255
belief that you are subject to the world and can't do anything about your destiny
external locus of control
256
tendency to develop preference for things simply because we are repeatedly exposed to them
forced proximity trope
mere exposure effect
257
belief or expectation that influences behaviors in a way that causes the belief to come true
self-fulfilling prophecy
258
Idea that people evaluate their own abilities, traits, and feelings by comparing themselves to others
social comparison
259
generalized belief about group of people that is applied to every member often unfairly and inaccurately
Sterotype
260
Negative attitude towards group of people based only on their group membership
Prejudice
261
Unjust or harmful behavior directed at individuals based on group membership
discrimination
262
method of persuasion that involves careful evaluation of logical arguments and evidence leading to long lasting attitude change
central route
263
method of persuasion that relies on cues like attractiveness or credibility rather than content of the message, often results in temporary attitude change
Peripheral route
264
Tendency for group discussions to amplify the initial attitudes or opinions of its members, leading to more extreme decisions or views
Group polarization
265
Desire for harmony and conformity in group leads to poor decision making and suppression of dissenting opinions
group think
266
Occurs when individuals in group feel less personal accountability for actions often leading to decreased effort in emergencies
diffusion of responsibility
267
tendency to put in less effort when working in group than alone
social loafing
268
loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings often resulting in impulsive or deviant behaviors
Deindividualization
269
Tendency for individuals to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when in the presence of others
social facilitation
270
tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
false consensus bias
271
Shared goals that require cooperation between individuals or group that overcome differences and promote unity
superordinate goals
272
Occur when individuals or groups pursue short-term, self-interest, leading to long-term negative consequences for the collective
social traps
273
Expectation that people will help those who have helped them fostering an exchange and cooperation social relationship
Social Reciprocity Norm
274
Expectation that individuals will help those in need regardless of whether they will receive any benefits in return
Social responsibility norm
275
Personality shaped by unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts, as proposed by Sigmund Freud
Psychodynamic theory
276
Unconscious part that seeks instant pleasure and avoids pain (devil)
ID
277
Rational part that balances desires with reality
Ego
278
Moral part that strives for ideals and perfection (angel)
Superego
279
Attributing one's own unwanted thoughts, feelings, or motives to someone else
when you see the things you don't like about yourself in others and lash out
projection
280
Redirecting negative emotions or impulses from original source to a safer, less threatening target
displacement
281
justifying behaviors with logical but false explanations to avoid facing underlying reasons
rationalization
282
unconscious blocking of distressing thoughts, memories, or impulses from conscious awareness
repression
283
channeling unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable or productive activities
becoming a wrestler
sublimation
284
Consists of memories and information that are not currently in awareness but can be easily brought to consciousness
preconscious
285
Personality assessment that uses ambiguous stimuli to uncover unconscious thoughts, feelings, or desires based on how a person interprets the image or scenario
projective personality tests
286
Personality is result of reciprocal interactions between behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors, emphasizing the role of observational learning, self-efficacy, and personal experience
Albert Bandura's Social cognitive theory
287
Individual's perception of themselves, including their beliefs, values, and identity, which influences behavior and decision-making
self-concept
288
Person's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks, which affects motivation and perseverance
self-efficacy
289
One's overall sense os self-worth and personal value, shaped by experience, feedback, and social comparisons
self-esteem
290
What does the OCEAN acronym stand for
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
291
Biological needs create internal drives (like hunger or thirst) that motivate behavior to restore homeostasis and reduce tension
drive-reduction
292
People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, seeking stimulation when bored and reducing when overstimulated
The theory that we perform best at medium arousal is _____-______ Law
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson
293
Motivation driven by internal rewards like personal satisfaction, curiosity, etc.
intrinsic self-determination
294
Motivation driven by external rewards or pressures like money, grades, or social approval
extrinsic self-determination
295
When a person must choose between two desirable options
Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory
Approach-Approach
296
When a person is drawn to and repelled by the same choice due to positive and negative aspects
Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory
Approach-Avoidance
297
When person must choose between two undesirable options
Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory
Avoidance-Avoidance
298
Hormone released by stomach to signal hunger to brain
ghrelin
299
hormone released by fat cells that signals fullness and reduces hunger
leptin
300
master gland controlled by hypothalamus indirectly affects hunger through metabolism-related hormones
pituitary gland
301
a hormone released by stomach that signals hunger to the brain
satiety
302
Suggests that facial expressions influence emotional experiences
facial feedback hypothesis
303
Positive emotions expand cognitive and behavioral responses (Broaden) and help build long-term personal resources like resilience and problem-solving skills (Build)
The broaden and build theory
304
Cultural norms that dictate when, where, and how emotions should be expressed, influencing emotional expression based on social context
display rules
305
Studies how biological, psychological, and social factors influence health, illness, and health-related behaviors
health psychology
306
Positive, motivating stress that can enhance performance or personal growth
eutress
307
Negative stress that causes anxiety, discomfort, or impairs functioning
distress
308
Selye's three-stage model of the body's stress response: Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
General Adaptation Syndrome
309
Coping strategy aimed at directly addressing or solving the source of stress
Fixing hole in wall
problem-focused coping
310
Coping strategy focused on managing emotional reactions to stress rather than the stressor itself
Meditation/yoga
emotion-focused coping
311
Growing after a traumatic event
posttraumatic growth
312
Therapeutic approach that combines techniques and theories from multiple perspectives to best meet the needs of the client
eclectic approach
313
Treat disorder using learning principles (reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning) to modify maladaptive behaviors and replace them with healthier responses
"The consequences of an act affect the probability of its occurring again."
Behavioral Psychology
314
Focuses on uncovering unconscious conflicts, past experiences, and repressed emotions that influence current behavior aiming to increase self-awareness and insight to resolve psychological distress
"Unexpressed emotions will never die. They are buried alive and will come forth later in uglier ways."
Psychodynamic Psychology
315
A result of disconnect between a person's real self and ideal self, often due to a lack of unconditional positive regard, and they focus on helping individuals achieve self-actualization through empathy, authenticity, and personal growth
"The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change."
Humanistic Psychology
316
Focuses on identifying and changing distorted thought patterns, beliefs, and attitudes that contribute to emotional distress and maladaptive behavior helping individuals develop healthier thinking and coping strategies
"The way you think determines the way you feel and act."
cognitive psychology
317
Explains psychological disorders as maladaptive behaviors or thought patterns that may have once been evolutionarily advantageous but no longer serve a beneficial purpose in modern environments
"Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power by graduation."
Evolutionary Psychology
318
Influenced by social, cultural, and environmental factors, such as family dynamics, socioeconomic status, cultural norms, and community support systems
"Through others, we become ourselves."
Sociocultural psychology
319
Explained by abnormalities in brain structure, neurochemical imbalances, or genetic influences. Treatment often involves medication, brain stimulation, or other medical interventions to restore biological functioning
"Everything that we call mind is a product of brain function."
biological psychology
320
Explains behavior and mental processes as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences
Biopsychosocial psychology
321
Intense fear and avoidance of situations where escape may be difficult or help unavailable often leading to avoidance of public places
Agoraphobia
