full review - bio mcat Flashcards
(635 cards)
1
Q
nucleoid region is the
A
DNA region in prokaryotes
2
Q
nucleolus makes
A
ribosomes
3
Q
where is the nucleolus?
A
sits in nucleus, no membrane
4
Q
peroxisomes collect and…
A
break down material
5
Q
rough ER accepts
A
mRNA to make proteins
covered in ribosomes
6
Q
smooth ER function?
A
detox and makes lipids
7
Q
golgi apparatus function?
A
modifies/distributes proteins
ONLY in eukaryotes
8
Q
vesicular transport?
A
COPII –> FORWARD
COPI <— RETURN
9
Q
cisternal maturation
A
vesicles travel in retrograde
new cis made
cis/medial/trans/exit
10
Q
centrioles are…
A
9 groups of microtubules
pull chromosomes apart
11
Q
lysosomes function?
A
demo and recycling center
made by golgi apparatus
single membrane
12
Q
plasmids are found in…
A
prokaryotes
carry dna but NOT for survival
13
Q
cytoskeleton is made of…
A
microfilaments
microtubules
intermediate filaments
14
Q
microfilaments are made of…
A
actin
15
Q
microtubules are made of
A
tubulin
16
Q
intermediate filaments are made of
A
keratin = vimentin
desmin = lamin
17
Q
types of tissue
A
epithelia
connective
18
Q
simple epithelia
A
one layer
19
Q
stratified epithelia
A
multiple layers
20
Q
pseudostratified epithelia
A
one layer
looks like multiple, but really just ONE
21
Q
cuboidal epithelia
A
cube shape
22
Q
columnar epithelia
A
long and narrow
23
Q
squamous epithelia
A
flat, scale-like
24
Q
connective tissue comprised of 5 things
A
strome (support/extracellular matrix)
bone
cartilage
tendon
blood
25
obligate aerobe bacterial requires
oxygen
26
obligate anaerobe
dies in oxygen
27
facultative anaerobe toggle b/w...
aerobic and anaerobic
28
aerotolerant anaerobe does not…..
use oxygen but tolerates it
29
gram positive bacteria is....
PURPLE
thick peptidoglycan/lipoteichoic acid cell wall
30
gram negative bacteria is...
PINK-RED (safarin)
thin peptidoglycan cell wall and outer membrane
31
bacteria shapes
bacilli (rod)
cocci (sphere)
spirilla (spiral)
32
genetic recombination steps
transformation
conjugation
transduction
transposons
33
transformation gets...
genetic info from environment
34
conjugation is the transfer of...
genetic info via conjugation bridge
F+ --> F- or Hfr --> recepient
35
transduction uses...
bacteriophage for transfer
36
transposons have genetic info that can...
insert/remove themselves
37
eukaryote
ETC in mitochrondria
large ribosomes
reproduce via mitosis
38
prokaryote
ETC in cell membrane
small ribosomes
no nucleus
reproduce via binary fission
plasmids carry DNA material
39
plasmids that integrate into genome are….
EPISOMES
40
prions are...
infectious proteins
41
prions trigger...
misfolding such as alpha-helical --> beta-plated sheet
lowered solubility
42
viroid
plant pathogens
43
capsid is the
protein coat on a virus
44
envelope in viruses
some viruses have a lipid envelope
45
viral genome may be...
DNA or RNA
single or double stranded
46
virion
individual virus particles
47
bacteriophages
bacteria virus
tail sheath injects DNA/RNA
48
if virus is single-stranded, explain pos and neg senses
positive sense: can be translated by host cell
neg sense: RNA replicase must synthesize a complimentary strand --> translated
49
retrovirus
single stranded RNA
reverse transcriptase needed to make DNA
e.g. HIV
50
bacteriophage life cycles
lytic or lysogenic
51
lytic life cycle
virions made until cell lyses
52
lysogenic life cycle
virus integrates into genome as provirus / prophage
goes dormant until stress activates it
53
general overview of cell cycle
G1
G0
G1 checkpt
G2
S
G2 checkpt
M
54
positive growth signals
1) CDK + cyclin create a complex
2) phosphorylate Rb to Rb + P
3) Rb changes shape, releases E2F
4) cell division continues
CDK = cyclin-dependent kinase
55
negative growth signals
1) CDK inhibitors block phosphorylation of Rb
2) so E2F stays attached
3) cell cycle halts
E2F = regulate expressions of genes in G1 and S phases
56
sex is determined by
23rd pair of chromosomes
XX = female
XY = male
57
x-linked disorders
males express, females can be carriers
58
y-chromosomes
little genetic info
SRY gene = sorry you're male
59
semen is
sperm + seminal fluid
60
what makes viscous fluid to clean out urethra?
bulbourethral glands
61
what do seminal vesicles and the prostate gland do?
make alkaline fluid to help sperm survive acidic environment of female reproductive tract
62
SEVE(N) UP is the
sperm pathway mnemonic
Seminiferous tubules
Epididymis
Vans deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
Penis
63
site of spermatogenesis?
seminiferous tubules
nourished by sertoli cells
64
epidiymis stores...
sperm
sperm gain motility
65
vans deferens function?
raise/lower testes
66
mitosis
PMAT: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
ploidy of 2n throughout
67
prophase - mitosis
DNA condenses
centrioles migrate to opp poles
microtubules form
nuclear envelope disappears
68
metaphase - mitosis
chromosomes "meet in the middle"
69
anaphase - mitosis
sister chromatids separate and move to opp poles
70
telophase - mitosis
chromosomes decondense
nuclear membrane forms
cytokinesis occurs
71
meiosis overview
PMAT x2
ploidy goes from 2n to n
72
what is nondisjunction?
when sister chromatids don't separate properly during anaphase
results in aneuploidy
73
prophase I
chromosomes condense
nuclear membrane dissolves
homologous chromosomes form bivalents
crossing over occurs
74
metaphase I
spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes connect to bivalents (at centromeres)
align them along middle of the cell
75
anaphase I
homologous pairs move to opp poles of the cell
DISJUNCTION
accounts for law of segregation
76
telophase I
chromosomes decondense
nuclear membrane may reform
cell divides (cytokinesis)
two haploid daughter cells form --> cells are unequal sizes
77
prophase II
chromosomes condense
nucl membrane dissolves
centrosomes move to opp poles (perpendicular to before)
78
metaphase II
spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes attach to chromosomes (at centromere)
align them along cell equator
79
anaphase II
spindle fibers contract and separate sister chromatids
chromatids (now chromosomes) move to opp poles
80
telophase II
chromosomes decondense
nuclear membrane reforms
cell divide (cytokinesis) to form 4 HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS
81
ovaries have follicles that produce….
ova
controlled by FSH and LH
82
oogenesis
production of female gametes
83
estrogen is the response to
FSH that develops reproductive tract, thickens uterine wall
84
progesterone is the response to
LH
maintains/protects endometrium
"estrogen establishes / progresterone protects the endometrium"
85
pathway for female reproductive system
egg
peritoneal sac
fallopian tube/oviduct
86
GnRH is
gonadotropin-releasing hormones
87
FSH is the
follicle stimulating hormones
88
what does the FSH do
in males: triggers spermatogenesis, stimulates sertoli cells
females: stimulates development of ovarian follicles
89
LH is the
lutenizing hormones
90
LH in males/females
males: causes interstitial cells to make testosterone
females: induces ovulation
91
fertilization —>
morula
blastula
gastrulation
neurulation
92
fertilization occurs in the
ampulla of fallopian tube
93
during fertilization, sperm's acrosomal enzymes penentrate...
corona radiate and zona pellucia
94
after corona radiate/zona pellucia are pentrated...
acrosomal enzymes inject pronucleus
95
during fertilization, cortical rxn releases Ca2+ which depolarizes the…
ovum membrane and makes it impenetrable
96
what is a morula?
early solid mass of cells
97
blastula implants in the
endometrial lining
fluid filled blastocoel
98
trophoblast becomes the
chorion / placenta
98
inner cell mass -->
organism
99
archenteron leads to....
blastopore during gastrulation
100
what forms during gastrulation?
ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
101
ectoderm forms
the nervous system, skin, hair, nails, mouth, anus
"attract-oderm" --> skin/hair are things people are attracted to
102
mesoderm forms
muscoskeleton, circulatory system, gonads, adrenal cortex
"move-oderm" --> involved in moving things such as muscles, RBC, steroids
103
endoderm forms
endocrine glands, GI tract, respiratory tract, bronchi, bladder, stomach
"in-doderm" --> things are INSIDE
104
during neurulation:
mesoderm develops a (x) then (x) induces (y)
x = notochord
y = ectoderm
105
ectoderm --> neural folds….
--> neural tube
neural folds --> neural crest cells --> PNS
neural tube --> CNS
106
totipotent stem cells:
"total"
can be any type of cell
107
pluripotent stem cells can be any cell except…
those found in placental structures
108
multipotent stem cells are
more specialized
can be multiple types of cells
109
adult stem cells are.....
multipotent and require treatment w/ transcription factors
110
fetal hemoglobin (HbF)
increased oxygen affinity than HbA (adult hemoglobin)
oxygen and co2 exchange via diffusion
111
umbilical vein transports...
oxygen from
PLACENTA to the baby
112
umbilical artery brings...
oxygen away from the baby towards placenta
113
twins
fraternal = dizygotic
identical = monzygotic
114
cell specialization:
determination
differentiation
115
cell determination:
cell commits to becoming a certain type of cell
116
cell differentiation follows
determination
selectively transcribe genes appropriate for cell's specific function
117
induction is when
a group of cells influence the fate of nearby cells
118
types of cell signaling
autocrine
paracrime
juxtacrine
endocrine
119
fetal shunts that skip lungs
foramen ovale: R atrium --> L atrium
ductus arteriousus: pulmonary artery --> artery
120
fetal shunts that skip liver
umbilical vein --> inferior vena cava
121
afferent neurons
Ascend spinal cord
sensory neurons that bring signals to CNS
122
interneurons are
between other neurons
123
efferent neurons
Exit spinal cord
motor neurons
goes away from the CNS
124
temporal summations
same space / different time
125
spatial summations
different space / same time
126
glial cells
astrocytes
ependymal cells
microglia
schwann cells
oligendrocytes
127
astrocytes form the
blood-brain barrier
controls solutes moving from bloodstream to nervous tissue
128
ependymal cells form the
barrier b/w cerebrospinal fluid and the interstitial fluid of the CNS
129
microglia function
digest waste in CNS
130
schwann cells are in the
PNS and make myelin
131
oligendrocytes are in the
CNS and make myelin
132
white matter:
myelinated sheaths
133
grey matter:
cell bodies and dendrites
unmyelinated
134
brain has what white and grey matter in...
white matter - inside
grey matter - outer
135
where is the white and grey matter in the spinal cord?
grey matter inside
white matter outside
136
monosynaptic reflex arc
sensory neuron --> motor neuron
137
polysynaptic reflex arc
sensory neuron --> interneuron --> motor
138
what is the CNS comprised of
brain and spinal cord
139
PNS is comprised of
somatic and peripheral nervous systems
140
somatic nervous system is
voluntary
sensory (afferent)
motor (efferent)
141
autonomic nervous system is divided into
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
142
sympathetic nervous system
flight or flight
bronchi relax
bp increase
decreased peristalsis
143
neurotransmitters in sympathetic nervous system
preganglionic: acetylcholine
postganglionic: epi / norepi
144
preganglionic neuron travels from its
origin in brain or spinal cord —> ganglion
ganglion = collection of cytons outside cns
145
postganglionic neuron begins in and travels from
ganglion to the
smooth muscle/gland being innervated
146
parasympathetic NS
rest and digest
reduce bronchi
conserve energy
increase persistalsis
147
parasympathetic NS neurotransmitters
preganglionic: acetylcholine
postganglionic: acetylcholine
148
neurotransmitter removed from synaptic cleft via either
breakdown by enzymes
reuptake
diffusion out of cleft
149
what are peptide hormones made of
AAs
150
peptide hormones formation
1) cleaved from larger polypeptide
2) golgi modifies and activates hormone
3) put in vesicles released via exocytosis
4) polar - can't pass through membrane so GPCR (extracellular receptor) is used
common 2nd messengers: cAMP, Ca2+, IP3
151
example of peptide hormones
insulin
152
steroid hormones are made in the
gonads and adrenal cortex
from cholesterol
153
steroid hormones don't dissolve, they must be….
carried by proteins
they are nonpolar
154
steroid hormones activate
nuclear receptors
and directly act on DNA
155
steroid hormones example
estrogen / testosterone / cortisol
156
amino acid-derivative hormones share traits from
both peptide and steroid hormones
e.g. catecholamines use GPCR, thyroxine bind intracellularly
157
GPCR
g-protein coupled receptor
158
epinephrine is a
ligand 1st messenger
159
at the end of the GPCR process...
phosphodiesterase deactivates cAMP
GTP hydrolyzed back to GDP
160
direct hormones act directly on
target tissue / organ
e.g. insulin
161
tropic hormones require an
intermediary
only affect other endocrine tissues
162
examples of tropic hormones
GnRH
LH
163
type 1 diabetes
no insulin
glucose can't enter cells
164
type 2 diabetes
desensitized insulin receptor
glucose is unable to enter cells
165
air pathway
nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli
166
what happens in the pharynx
food / air travels through
air is warmed / humidified
167
larynx takes only…
air in
epiglottis covering
contains vocal cords
168
trachea has ciliated….
epithelium that collect debris
169
bronchi connects…
windpipe to lungs
170
bronchioles
the smallest of the branches of the bronchi
171
alveoli are
sacs where diffusion occurs
surfactant reduces surface tension
prevents collapse
172
pulmonary veins + oxygen bring
oxygen from lungs to heart
173
pulmonary artery brings oxygen from
heart to lungs
174
what happens during inhalation?
neg pressure breathing
active process
diaphragm + external intercostal muscles contract
intracellular space increases, thoracic cavity increase, pressure decreases
increase lung volume, decrease lung pressure
air rushes in
175
exhalation is a (what) process, muscles (do what)
what happens to lung volume and pressure
passive process
muscles relax
lung vol decrease, increase lung pressure
air leaves lungs
176
active exhalation
internal intercostal + abd muscles help force air out
177
spirometer measures
lung capacity
can not measure total volume
178
total lung capacity
max vol of air in lungs
179
residual volume
residual after exhalation
air stays in lungs to keep alveoli from collapsing
180
vital capacity
difference b/w minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs
181
tidal volume
volume inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath
182
expiratory reserve volume
volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled following normal exhalation
183
inspiratory reserve volume
volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled following normal inhalation
184
vibrissae is...
in the pharynx
protects from pathogens
185
lysosomes are in the...
nasal cavity/saliva
attack gram POSITIVE peptidoglycan
186
mast cells function
antibiotics on surface
inflammation
allergic rxns
187
what else serves as protection from pathogens?
mucous membranes
mucocillary escalation
188
what happens to the bicarbonate buffer when pH decreases
increased respiration to blow off carbon dioxide
189
what happens to the bicarbonate buffer when pH increases?
decreased respiration
traps carbon dioxide
190
what happens to the medulla oblongata when carbon dioxide increases
increased respiration (exchanging gases)
191
what happens to the medulla oblongata when the oxygen lowers?
hypoxemia
increased ventilation (air in/out)
192
electrical conduction pathway
SA node (Pacemaker) --> AV node --> Bundle of His --> Purkinje fibers
"Stab A Big Pickle"
193
blood pressure
systole / diastole
194
systole
ventricular contraction, AV valves close
195
diastole
ventricular relaxation, SV close, blood atria --> ventricles
196
normal BP range
90/60 to 120/80
197
what is BP maintained by?
baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
198
what can reduce blood pressure?
increased ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
199
lower BP causes which hormones to increase
increased aldosterone
increased anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin)
200
when blood osmolarity increases, what hormone is released
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
201
cardiac output =
heart rate x stroke volume
CO = HR x SV
202
arteries are
thick/muscular/elastic
allow for recoil and propel blood forward
203
arterioles
small muscular arteries
204
capillaries are....
1 cell thick endothelial wall
easy diffusion of gases (o2, co2) and waste (NH3, urea)
205
veins are
thin/inelastic
may stretch to accommodate blood but NO recoil
surrounding muscles help pump blood through
contains valves
206
what are venules?
small veins
207
what are antigens?
surface proteins on RBCs
208
Rh factor is
protein that is found on the surface of RBCs
Rh+ is dominant
209
erythrocytes are formed in the
bone marrow
AKA red blood cells (RBCs)
NO nucleus/mitochondria/organelles
contain hemoglobin to carry oxygen
210
blood is considered a
connective tissue
211
thrombocytes are…
aka platelets
cell fragments
allow for coagulation
212
hydrostatic pressure moves fluid out of the blood vessel and into the…
interstitial fluid around it
213
osmotic pressure is the pressure generated by solutes as they…
draw water into the bloodstream
214
oxygen is carried by
hemoglobin
215
carbon dioxide is carried by
hemoglobin (sometimes)
most exist in bloodstream as bicarbonate HCO3- (buffer)
216
when the endothelial lining of a blood vessel is damaged...
the collagen and tissue factor underlying the endothelial cells are exposed
217
prothrombin -->
thrombin
218
fibrinogen -->
fibrin
219
what breaks down clots?
plasmin
220
innate immunity have defenses that are always....
active but are NON-SPECIFIC
e.g. skin/mucus/stomach acid/tears/etc
221
adaptive immunity are defenses that...
take time to activate and are SPECIFIC to the invader
222
skin, mucus, lysozyme and what else are part of non-cellular innate immune system?
complement system
interferons
223
explain why skin is an innate defense
physical barrier
secretes antimicrobial enzymes like DEFENSINS
224
mucus function in innate immune system
on mucus membranes
traps pathogens in
in respiratory system --> mucous is propelled upward by cilia via MUCOCILARY ESCALATOR
225
lysozymes are found in
in tears and saliva
antimicrobial compound
innate immune system
226
complement system can punch holes in…
bacteria's cell walls
osmotically unstable --> lysis
triggers opsonization
227
inteferons are given off by
virally infected cells
InterFERE w/ viral replication + dispersion
228
macrophages, MHC-I, MHC-II and what else are part of cellular innate defenses
dendritic cells
natural killer cells
granulocytes
229
macrophages ingest pathogens and present them on….
MHC-II and secrete cytokines
230
MHC-1 is present in all
nucleated cells
displays endogenous antigen to cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells
231
MHC-II is present in…
professional antigen-presenting cells
display exogenous antigen to help CD4+ T-cells
e.g. macrophages, dendritic cells, some B-cells, certain activated epithelial cells
232
dendritic cells are
antigen-presenting cells in skin
233
natural killer cells attack cells low on....
MHC including virally infected cells and cancer cells
234
granulocytes - innate immune system
neutrophils
eosinophil
basophils
235
neutrophils are activated by
bacteria
conduct phagocytosis
236
eosinophil is activated by
parasites and allergens
increase histamines
237
basophils are activated by allergens and inhibit…
blood clotting
238
humoral immunity centers on antibody production by...
B-cells
kills antigens while they are floating around in the fluid (humor)
239
B-cells aka B-lymphocytes are made/mature in...
bone marrow
240
antibodies (Ig) are produced by
plasma cells which are activated by b-cells
target antigens
241
hypermutation is the mutation of the
antigen binding site on an antibody
results in varrying affinities of antibodies for a specific microbe
5 diff isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE, IgA)
242
opsonization is antibodies marking….
pathogens for destruction
243
agglutination is when
pathogens clump together into insoluble complexes
caused by opsonizing pathogens
244
memory b-cells lie in wait for a
2nd exposure to pathogen
2ndary response is more rapid and vigorous
245
humoral immunity includes:
b-cells, antibodies, hypermutation and...
opsonization
agglutination
memory b cells
246
cell-mediated (cytotoxic) immunity centers on
T cells
responds to cells once they have been infected by the antigen
247
cell-mediated immunity include:
t cells, pos/neg selection, helper t-cells, cytotoxic t-cells, suppressor t-cells, memory t-cells and...
autoimmune conditions
allergic rxns
immunization
passive immunity
248
t-cells
aka t-lymphocytes
made in bone marrow, mature in thymus
coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells
cell-mediated immunity
249
positive/negative selection
maturation of t-cells
faciliated by thymosin
occurs in thymus
250
positive selection - adaptive immunity
mature IN ONLY t-cells that respond to the presentation of antigen on MHC
posiTive - t cells
251
negative selection (part of adaptive immunity)
causes apoptosis in t-cells that are self-reactive
252
helper t-cells
Th or CD4+
respons to antigen on MHC-II
coordinate rest of immune system
secretes lymphotkines to activate immune defense
253
Th1 secrete
interferon gamma
254
Th2 activates b cells in
parasitic infection
255
cytotoxic t-cells
aka Tc, CTL, or CD8+
"killer cells"
respond to antigen on MCH-1 and kills virally infected cells
256
suppressor t-cells
aka Treg
down-regulate immune response after an infection + promote self-tolerance
defective suppressor t-cells --> leading to autoimmune conditions
257
memory t-cells serve a similar function to
memory b-cells
258
autoimmune conditions
a self-antigen is recognized as foreign
then immune system attacks normal cells
259
allergic rxns occur when
nonthreatening exposures incite an inflammatory response
260
immunization induces....
active immunity
activation of b-cells that produce antibodies
261
passive immunity is the transfer of
antibodies to an individual
e.g. breast milk
262
what is the lymphatic system?
circulatory system that consists of one-way vessels w/ intermittent lymph nodes
263
lymphatic system provides for
mounting immune responses
264
lymphatic system connects to the...
cardiovascular system via the thoracic duct in the posterior chest
265
lymphatic system equalizes fluid distribution and....
transports fats / fat-soluble compounds in chylomicrons
266
edema results when the lymphatic system is overwhelmed…
and can't drain excess fluid from tissues
267
intracellular digestion is the oxidation of….
glucose and fatty acids to make energy
268
extracellular digestion is the process by which
nutrients are obtained from food
occurs in alimentary canal
269
mechanical digestion is the
physical breakdown of large food molecules into smaller particles
270
chemical digestions is the enzymatic cleavage of...
chemical bonds
such as peptide bonds in protein or the glycosidic bonds of starches
271
peristalsis is the rhythmic contractions of the....
gut tube
increase parasympathetic NS
decrease sympathetic NS
272
feeding behavior hormones
ADH + aldosterone: increase thirst
glucagon + ghrelin: increase hunger
leptin + CCK: increase satiety
273
what is the duodenum?
first part of small intenstine
basic (pH = 8.5)
site of majority of chem digestion
274
enzymes in duodenum
disaccharidases
aminopeptidase + dipeptidase
enteropeptidase
275
disaccharidases are brush-border enzymes that break down….
maltose, isomaltose, lactose, sucrose into monosaccharides
276
aminopeptidase + dipeptidase are
brush-border peptidases
277
enteropeptidase activates
trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases
278
hormones in duodenum
secretin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
279
secretin is a
peptide hormone
stimulated release of pancreatic juices and slows motility
280
cholecystokinin stimulates bile release from
gallbladder
release of pancreatic juices and satiety
281
digestive pathway
oral cavity
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
282
what happens in the oral cavity
mastication (starts mech digestion)
salivary amylase + lipase start chem digestion of food
food is formed into a bolus + swallowed
283
the pharynx connects the mouth to the
esophagus
epiglottis prevents food from entering the larynx
284
esophagus propels food to the stomach using....
peristalsis
285
top third of esophagus has skeletal...
muscle and is under somatic control
286
bottom third of esophagus has
smooth muscle
under autonomic control
287
middle third of esophagus has combo of both
skeletal and smooth muscles
under autonomic control
288
stomach has what kind of pH
acidic pH (pH = 2)
289
four parts of the stomach
fundus
body
antrum
pylorus
290
pepsin breaks down
proteins
pepsin is an enzyme
291
secretory cells lining stomach
mucous cells
chief cells
parietal cells
g-cells
292
mucous cells produce
bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect stomach wall from acid
293
chief cells secrete
pepsinogen (a protease activated by the acidic environment)
294
parietal cells secrete
HCl and intrinsic factor (needed for vitamin B-12 absorption)
295
g-cells secrete
gastrin
gastrin is a peptide hormone that increase HCl secretion and gastric motility
296
after processing in the stomach, food particles are now….
chyme
297
chyme exits through pyloric sphincter into -->
DUODENUM
298
jejunum and ileum of the small intestine are primarily involved in
absorption
small intestine is lined w/ villi (covered with microvilli)
299
each villi is comprised of
capillary bed: absorbs water-soluble nutrients
lacteal: absorbs fat, sends to lymphatic system
300
large intestine absorbs
water and salts, forms feces
301
vitamin absorption
fat-soluble: only A, D, E, K enter lacteal
water-soluble: all others enter plasma directly
302
cecum is the
outpocketing that accepts fluids from small intestine thru the ileocecal valve
site of attachment of the appendix
303
colon structure
ascending / transverse / descending / sigmoid
304
gut bacteria produces which vitamins
vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7)
305
accessory organs originate from
endoderm
306
pancreas contain acinar cells which produce pancreatic juices that contain:
bicarbonate
pancreatic amylase
pancreatic peptidases
pancreatic lipase
307
liver synthesizes
bile, albumin, clotting factors
process nutrients
detox (NH3 --> urea) as well as alcohol and drugs
308
liver receives blood from the...
abd portion of the digestive tract via hepatic portal vein
309
gallbladder stores and concentrates
bile
310
CCK stimulates bile release into....
billary tree which merges w/ pancreatic duct
311
excretory (urine) pathway
bowman's space
proximal convoluted tubule
descending limb of the loop of Henle
ascending limb of the loop of Henle
distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct
renal pelvis
ureter
bladder
urethra
312
kidney contains
a cortex and medulla
313
kidney produces urine which dumps into ureter at the….
renal pelvis
urine then collects in the bladder until excreted through the urethra
314
nephron is the functioning unit of the
kidney
315
renal portal system is comprised of
two capillary beds in series (glomeruli + nephron)
316
blood flow (via renal portal system)
renal artery
afferent arterioles
glomureli
efferent arteriole
vasa recta (surround nephron)
renal vein
317
filtration via kidney
bowman's capsule moves solutes from blood --> filtrate
318
filtration direction and rate are determined by
hydrostatic and oncotic pressure differentials b/w glomerulus and bowman's space
319
secretion is the movement of solutes from blood to
filtrate anywhere other than Bowman's capsule
320
reabsorption is the movement of
solutes from filtrate to blood
320
pH can be regulated by the kidney with…
bicarbonate and H+
321
aldosterone is the (what hormone) made in where
steroid hormone made in the adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin 2 or high K+
derived from cholesterol
322
aldosterone increases
Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
increases water reabsorption
increased BP, no change in blood osmolarity (RESULT)
323
ADH (vasopressin) is a peptide hormone synthesized by
hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary
increase permeability of collecting duct to water which water reabsorbs
result: increased BP and decreased blood osmolarity, concentrated urine
324
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) is the site of
bulk reabsorption of glucose, AA, solube vitamins, salt, water
site of secretion for H+, K+, NH3, urea
325
descending limb of the loop of henle is permeable to….
water but NOT salt
filtrate moves into the more osmotically concentrated renal medulla
water is reabsorbed from filtrate
326
contercurrent multiplier system
vasa recta and nephron flow in opp directions
creating a countercurrent multiplier system
allows maximal reabsorption of water
327
ascending limb of the loop of henle is permeable to
salt but NOT water
salt is reabsorbed passively/actively
328
the diluting segment is in the outer medulla b/c
salt is actively reabsorbed in this site
filtrate becomes hypotonic compared to the blood
329
distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is responsive to
aldosterone
site of salt reabsorption + waste product excretion like the PCT
330
collecting duct is responsive to both
aldosterone and ADH
has variable permeability
allows reabsorption of the right amount of water depending on body's needs
331
detrusor muscle is the
muscular lining of the bladder
parasympathetic control
332
internal urethral sphincter is made of
smooth muscle
parasympathetic control
333
external urethral sphincter is made of
skeletal muscle
voluntary muscle
334
skin layers
epidermis
dermis
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
335
epidermis - types of cells/layers
stratum basale
stratum spinosum
startum granulosum
stratum luciderm
stratum corneum
336
stratum basal
stem cells --> keratinocytes
337
stratum spinosum
lagerhans cells
338
stratum granulosum
keratinocytes die
339
stratum luciderm
only on thick, hairless skin
340
stratum corneum
multi thin layers, flat keratinocytes
341
langerhans cells are macrophages that are
antigen-presenting cells in skin
342
melanin is produced by
melanocytes
protects skin from DNA damages caused by ultraviolet radiation
343
dermis is which layers
papillary and reticular layers
344
merkel cells are responsible for
deep pressure + texture
345
free nerve endings are responsible
for pain
346
meissner's corpuscles are responsible for
light touch
347
ruffini endings are responsible for
stretching
348
pacinian corpuscles are responsible for
deep pressure and vibration
349
hypodermis is the
fat and connective tissue
connects skin to body
350
thermoregulation is responsible for
sweating
piloerection
shivering
vasodillation/vasoconstriction
351
sweating is
evaporative cooling
352
piloerection is
warming
353
shivering is
warming
354
vasodillation/vasoconstriction
cool/warm
355
skeletal muscles function
support + movement, blood propulsion, thermoregulation, striated
voluntary (somatic) control
multinucleated
356
red fibers
skeletal muscle
slow twitch / support / carry out oxidative phosphorylation
357
white fibers is part of what kind of muscle
skeletal muscle
fast-twitch
active / anaerobic metabolism
358
smooth muscle is found in which systems
respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, digestive systems
involuntary (autonomic) control
uninucleated
can display myogenic activity w/o neural input
359
cardiac muscle is the
contractile tissue of the heart
involuntary (autonomic) contro
uninucleated (sometimes binucleated)
360
skeletal system is derived from
mesoderm
361
axial skeleton is comprised of the
skulls
vertebral column
ribcage
hyoid bone
362
appendicular skeleton is comprised of
bones of limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvis
363
compact bone function
strength and density
364
spongy bone (cancellous) is the
lattice-like structure of bony spicules known as trabeculae
cavities filled w/ bone marrow
365
bone marrow
red: filled with hemtopoietic stem cells
yellow: fat
366
long bones are shafts called
DIAPHYSIS that flare to form metaphyses
terminate in epiphyses
367
epiphyses contain
epiphyseal (growth) palte
368
periosterum is the
connective tissue surrounding bone
369
ligaments attach bones
to other bones
370
tendons attach bones to
muscles
371
bone matrix is comprised of
osteons which are the primary structural unit of compact bone
372
osteons are the chief structural unit of compact bone consisting of......
concentric bone layers called lamellae
373
lamellae surround a long hollow passageway called
the Haversian canal
374
b/w concentric rings are lacunae where
osteocytes reside connected with cancaliculi
375
bone remodeling cells
osteoblasts build bone
osteroclasts reabsorb bone
376
during bone remodeling, parathyroid hormone
increases resorption of bone and blood calcium
377
during bone remodeling, vitamin D increases...
reabsorption of bone and blood calcium
378
during bone remodeling, calcitonin increases...
bone formation, decrease blood calcium in blood
379
cartilage is
firm and elastic
matrix is chondrin
secreted by chondrocytes
avascular + NOT innervated
380
immovable joints are formed together to form
sutures
381
movable joints are strengthened by
ligaments and contains a synovial capsule
382
synovial fluid is secreted by
synovium
lubricated joints
383
bones form from cartilage through
endochondral ossification
384
skull bones form directly from
mesenchyme in intramembranous ossification
385
sarcomeres are basic
contractile unit of striated muscule
THICK myosin and THIN actin filmanets
386
troponin and tropomyosin found on the thin filament and
regulate actin-myosin interaction
387
Z lines define the
boundary of each sarcomere
388
M line is the
middle of sarcomere
389
I-band is only the
actin filaments
390
H-zone is filled only with the
myosin filaments
391
A-band contains both
actin and myosin
only part that maintains a constant size during contraction
392
sarcomeres attach end-to-end to become
myofibrils
each myocyte contains many myofibrils
393
sarcoplasmic reticulum is filled with
Ca2+
and is a modified endoplasmic reticulum
394
sarcolemma is the
cell membrane of a myocyte
395
t-tubules is connected to
sarcolemma and carried signals
396
contraction begins at the
neuromuscular junction
397
efferent neurons releases acetylcholine that binds to
receptors on the sacrolemma, causing depolarization
398
depolarization spreads down the sarcolemma to
T-tubules, triggering the Ca2+ release
399
Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin and
exposure of the myosin-binding sites on the acting filament
400
shortening of the sarcormere occurs as myosin heads...
bind to the exposed sites on actin
forms cross bridges and pulls the actin filament along the thick filament
"sliding filament model"
401
muscles relax when acetylcholine is
degraded by acetylcholinesterase
terminated signal and allows Ca2+ to return to the SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum)
402
ATP binds to myosin head, allowing it to release from
actin
403
simple twitch
single muscle fiber responds to brief stimulus
404
frequency summation is the addition of multiple…
simple twitches before muscle fully relaxes
405
oxygen debt is the difference b/w
oxygen needed and the oxygen present
406
creatine phosphate adds a
phosphate group to ADP, forming ATP
407
myoglobin is a heme-containing protein that
is a muscular oxygen reserve
408
what are alleles?
alt form of a gene
409
dominant allel only requires
1 copy in order to be expressed
410
recessive allele requires
two copies in order to be expressed
411
genotype is the combination of
alleles one has at a given locus
412
homozygous genotype
have two of the same allele
413
heterozygous genotype
having two diff alleles
414
phenotype
observable manifestation of a genotype
415
complete dominance
only one dominant allele
416
codominance
more than one dominant allele
417
incomplete dominance
no dominant alleles
heterozygotes have intermediate phenotypes
418
penetrance is the proportion of individuals carrying a
particular allele that also express an associated phenotype
419
expressivity is the
varying phenotypic outcomes of a genotype
420
genetic leakage is the flow of genes b/w...
species via hybrid offspring
421
genetic drift is when the composition of the
gene pool changes and a result of chance
422
founder effect:
bottlenecks that suddenly isolate a small population
INBREEDING
423
taxonomic system
King Philip Came Over From Great Spain
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
424
point mutations is the substituting of
one nucleotide for another
425
frameshift mutations is moving the
3 letter reading frame
426
silent result of nucleotide mutations
no effect on protein
427
missense result of nucleotide mutations replace…..
one AA with another
428
nonsense result of nucleotide mutations
STOP codon replaces in an AA
429
insertion/deletion result of nucleotide mutations
shift in the reading frame
leading to a change in all downstream AAs
430
chromosomal mutations are
much larger mutations, affecting whole segments of DNA
431
deletion is a type of chromosomal mutation where
large segment of DNA is lost
432
duplication is when a segment of DNA is…
copied multiple times
433
inversion - chromosomal mutations
segment of DNA is reversed
434
insertion is a chromosomal mutation where a
segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another
435
translocation is a chromosomal mutation where a
segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome
436
law of segregation is when an organism has
two alleles for each gene
segregated during Anaphase I
b/c of this gametes carry only one allele for a trait
437
law of independent assortment is the
inheritance of one allele does not influence the probability of inheriting a given allele for a diff trait
except for linked genes
438
punnett squares
monohybrid cross accounts for ONE gene
dihybrid crosses account for TWO genes
sex-linked cross is linked to the x-chromosome
439
recombination frequency is the likelihood of
two alleles being separated during crossing over in mieosis
farther = increased likelihood of separation
440
hardy-weinberg principle is if a population meets certain criteria then allele…
frequencies will remain constant
441
hardy-weinberg equation
P + q = 1
P^2 + 2Pq + q^2 = 1
P = dominant allele fre
q = recessive allele freq
442
griffith experiment
demonstrated transformation
heat-killed smooth (virulent) strain of bacteria still transformed rough strain into smooth
443
avery-macleod-mccarty experiment
degradation of DNA --> cessation of bacterial transformation
degradation of proteins did not
444
hershey-chase experiment
confirmed DNA is the genetic material b/c only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria
444
what is natural selection?
mechanism for evolution = natural seleection
445
modern synthesis model
neo-darwinism
mutation and recombination are mechanisms of variation
differential reproduction
446
inclusive fitness is where if a population meet certain criteria then…
the allele frequencies will remain constant
(aimed at a lack of evolution)
447
punctuated equilibrium considers evolution to be a very slow...
process w/ intermittent rapid bursts of evol activity
448
stabilizing selection is a mode of natural selection which
keeps phenotypes in a narrow range exclusing extremes
449
directional selection moves average phenotype…
toward an extreme
450
disruptive selection moves toward two phenotypes at the…
extremes
leads to speciation
mode of nat sel
451
adaptive radiation
rapid emergence of multiple species from a common ancestor (each has a niche)
452
isolation is when organisms are
reproductively isolated from each other by pre- or postzygotic mechanisms
453
molecular clock model is the degree of difference in the
genome b/w two species + is related to the amt of time since two species broke off from a common ancestor
454
what happens in G1
make mRNA and proteins to prep for mitosis
455
G0
a cell will enter G0 if division IS NOT NEEDED
456
G1 checkpt
cell decides if it should divide
p53 in charge
457
S stage
DNA replicated
458
G2
cell growth
makes organelles
459
G2 checkpoint
check cell size
organelles
460
M stage
mitosis and cyotkinesis
461
Rh- person will only create anti-Rh antibodies after....
exposure to Rh+ blood
462
induction is mediated by...
INDUCERS aka growth factors
463
b-cells are activated in...
spleen / lymph nodes
464
b-cells express...
antibodies on cell surface
465
COPII vesicles exports new synthesized...
secretory proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum/ER
466
COPI vesicles facilitate traffic from...
Golgi to the ER and intra-Golgi transport
467
glycolysis produces
2 NADH and 4 ATP
= 7 ATP total
468
1 pyruvate makes
1 NADH in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
469
glucose forms how many pyruvates in the PDC
2 pyruvates
470
PDC generates a total of how many NADH per glucose molecule
2 NADH
471
how many ATP are made by PDC
5 atp
472
citric acid cycle products
6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 GTP = 20 ATP
473
total energy produced from one glucose =
32 ATP
474
each NADH results in how many ATP
2.5 ATP
10 NADH --> 25 ATP
475
each FADH2 results in how many ATP
1.5 FADH2
2 FADH2 forms 3 ATP
476
oxidative phosphorylation includes
ETC and chemiosmosis
477
ETC occurs in where
eukaryotes: mitochondria
prokaryotes: cell membrane
478
inhibitors for citrate synthase
ATP
NADH
citrate
succinyl-CoA
479
activator for citrate synthase
ADP
480
isocitrate dehydrogenase is what kind of enzyme
rate limiting enzyme
481
inhibitors for isocitrate dehydrogenase
ATP and NADH
482
activators for isocitrate dehydrogenase
ADP and NAD+
483
inhibitors for alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
succinyl-CoA
NADH
ATP
484
activator for alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
ADP
485
citric acid cycle occurs where
eukaryotes: mitochondrial matrix
prokaryotes: cytoplasm
486
where does gluconeogenesis take place?
mainly in liver
and in kidney sometimes
487
where does glycolysis take place?
cytoplasm
488
how many carbons in glucose
6
489
how many carbons in pyruvate?
3 carbons
490
how many pyruvates produced by glycolysis?
2 pyruvates
491
homologous regions are areas of
protein/gene sequence similarity b/w organisms from same or different species
492
during replication, what attaches uncoupled dNTPS to the growing DNA strand?
DNA polymerase
493
each dNTP (dTTP, dATP, dCTP, dGTP) composed of
a base, a deoxyribose sugar, 3 phosphate (PO4) groups
494
what is a thymidine analog?
molecules can be incorporated into a growing DNA strand in place of thymidine which bonds to adenosine via 2 H bonds
495
bc of the AT/CG rule of complementary base pairing, a free dNTP...
enters the catalytic site of DNA polymerase and forms H bonds with a complementary nucleotide on the parent strand
496
the 3' OH from the last nucleotide of the new growing strand
attacks the 5' PO4 of the incoming dNTP
497
during cDNA cloning, an mRNA
is idenified in an organism
498
mRNA can be isolated and mixed with
complementary primers known as oligo(dT) primers (composed of thymine nucleotides)
499
primers bind mRNA 3' poly-A tails and the enzyme...
reverse transcriptase uses dNTPs to generate SS DNA from target mRNAs
500
mRNA strand is degraded and resulting DNA is
amplified using DNA polymerase and PCR
501
restriction enzyme can cut DNA and
generate complementary sticky ends that anneal when molecules mix together
502
RNA polymerase function
synthesize various types of RNA but not used in cDNA cloning b/c mRNA is already present
503
504
x are a class of corticosteroids and include cortisol
glucocorticoids
released by adrenal cortex
505
what do mucous cells product to protect stomach wall from acid
bicarbonate rich mucus
506
what do chief cells in the stomach secrete
pepsinogen and gastric lipase
507
what does insulin do
signals liver, muscle, fat cells to take in glucose from the blood
508
insulin is secreted by what
beta islet cells of pancreas
509
parietal cells secrete what
HCl and intrinsic factor
510
what is the intrinsic factor needed for
vitamin b12 absorption
511
what does active immunity do
activate b cells that produce antibodies
512
episomes are
plasmids integrated into genome
513
examples of episomes
insertion sequences and transposons
viruses
F factor
514
how is cell membrane’s resting potential maintained
more K+ leak channels than Na+ channels
mire K+ will leave the cell compared to Na+ entering
negative charge inside
515
in an electrical synapse, there is a direct physical connection between
the presynaptic and post synaptic neuron
516
electric current in the form of ions flow
between cells
517
where does K+ leave through
voltage gated K+ channels and leak channels
518
gut microbiota produces
vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7)
519
what are white blood cells involved in mainly
immune responses
recognize and neutralize invaders such as bacteria and viruses
520
first part of large intestine and outpocketing that accepts fluid from small intenstine is called
cecum
521
hemoglobin disassociation curve is
sigmoidal bc 3 hemes quickly bind their own oxygen molecule
522
AV node does what
part of electrical conduction system or heart that coordinates top of heart
electrically connects atria and ventricles
523
lack of nucleus, mitochondria and organelles in RBCs reason
to carry more oxygen
524
mast cells release what to create an inflammatory cascade
cytokines and granules
525
what glycoproteins are present in ALL nucleated cells
MHC I
526
MHC II are present in
specialized antigen presenting cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, b cells
527
macrophages ingest
pathogens and present them on MHC II
528
what has four polypeptide chains (tetramer) with an iron containing heme group combined with each
hemoglobin
529
myoglobin dissociation curve shape
hyperbolic
530
MHC I displays what
endogenous antigen to cytotoxic CD8+ t cells
531
b cells mature into
plasma cells that product antibodies
532
myoglobin has how many heme groups
1
533
fetal hemoglobin has a higher or lower p50
lower because of high oxygen affinity
534
antigen binding region of an antibody is the
tip of the variable region
535
what does ADH do?
increases permeability of collecting duct to water --> increases water reabsorption
results: higher BP + lower blood osmolarity + concentrated urine
536
kidney is the only organ in the body to have
two capillary beds in series
537
capillary beds in series in kidney do what?
connect arteries to veins inside nephron
538
two capillary beds in kidney are
glomerular
peritubular
539
aldosterone increases what in where
Na+ reabsorption
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
540
what does aldosterone end up doing
increases water reabsorption and blood pressure
541
what is the muscular lining of the bladder
detrusor muscle
542
what does the detrusor muscle do
relaxes to store urine and contracts during urination
under parasympathetic control (rest + digest)
543
site of bulk reabsorption
PCT (proximal convoluted tubule) in renal cortex
544
what does the PCT reabsorb
glucose
AAs
soluble vitamins
salt
water
H+, K+, NH3, urea
545
internal sphincter is made of
smooth muscle
under parasympathetic control
546
DCT is permeable to
water but NOT SALT
547
as filtrate moves into the more osmotically concentrated renal medulla....
water is reabsorbed from filtrate
548
network of capillaries located at beginning of each nephron in kidney
glomerulus
549
what stimulates b-cells to secrete antibodies
helper t-cells
550
unlike microfilaments and microtubules, intermediate filaments do not
participate in cell motility
e.g. keratin and desmin
551
what do the kidneys do
help body pass waste as urine
filter blood before sending it back to heart
552
intermediate filaments do what to cells
link cells together
do not have a transport role
553
what detoxifies chemicals and converts NH3 to urea
the liver
554
aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption in the
DCT and collecting duct
thereby increasing water reabsorption and raising BP
555
kdiney regulated pH by adjusting the levels of
excreted H+ and reabsorbed bicarbonate
556
countercurrent multiplier system allows for
maximal reabsorption of water
557
what flows in opp directions to create countercurrent multiplier system
vasa recta and loop of Henle
558
diluting segment of the nephron is in the
outer medulla bc salt is actively reabsorbed in this site
559
what inhibits GH and what's the result
somatostatin (GHIH)
leads to lower insulin/glucagon
glucagon (alpha islet cells) - stored form of sugar in liver
insulin (beta islet cells)
560
GHIH hormone is a
peptide hormone secreted by delta-islet cells of pancreas
561
DCT is responsive to
aldosterone and is a site of salt reabsorption + waste product excretion just like the PCT
562
collecting duct has what kind of permeability
variable
563
variable permeability in collecting duct allows for
reabsorption of the right amount of water depending on the body's needs
responsive to both aldosterone and ADH
564
2,3-BPG has no effect on
myoglobin
565
BPG works by binding in the space between
the subunits in hemoglobin (heterotetramer)
566
myoglobin has just one what
monomer
which is why i.t. isn't affected by 2,3-BPG
567
muscles act in
groups to create movement
568
opposing pairs of muscles
flexors/extensors
abductors/adductors
569
an agonist is a muscle that
is causing the desired action
570
an antagonist is a muscle that is
relaxed
571
explains why myoglobin oxygen saturation curve is hyperbolic
because of only one heme group being present
NO cooperative binding
572
red skeletal muscle fibers are
slow twitch and carry out oxphos
red color comes from myoglobin (binds oxygen)
573
muscle fibers in long distance running
SLOW TWITCH
RED
574
muscle fibers in middle distance and sprinting
FAST TWITCH
WHITE
575
what are ruffini endings responsible for
sensation of skin stretching
576
white skeletal muscle fibers are
fast twitch and carry out anaerobic metabolism
577
individual virus particles found in extracellular
virion
578
virions contain
nucleic acid
capsid
579
what forms the supporting tissue of blood vessels and hollow internal organs?
smooth muscle
580
hollow organs examples
arteries + veins
airways
uterus
entire GI tract
bladder
ureters
iris (eye)
581
what does the G mean in G-protein
binding to GTP and GDP
582
mineralocorticoids are a class of what and include which hormone
corticosteroids
aldosterone
released by adrenal cortex
583
smooth muscle is uni or multinucleated
uninucleated
no striations
involuntary (autonomic control)
584
cardiac muscle is uni or multinucleated
uninucleated
striated
under autonomic control
585
what is meissner's corpuscle
type of nerve ending in skin that is responsible for sensitivity to light touch
586
cardiac muscles are connected with what that contains what
intercalated discs
gap junctions
587
what includes the skull, vertebral column, ribcage and hyoid bone?
axial skeleton
588
endocrine signalling releases signals into the
bloodstream to carry to target cells in distant parts of body
589
what includes the limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvis
appendicular skeleton
590
what is tidal volume
volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath
591
what is the hard structure of the skeleton made of
compact bone (aka cortical bone)
592
as each drop of sweat evaporates...
it takes a bit of body heat away with it
593
type of bone located at the ends of long bones
spongy bone
594
where does tyrosine become catecholamines usually
adrenal medulla
located at center of adrenal gland, surrounded by adrenal cortex which sits on top of kidneys
595
thin membrane that covers many of the bones in body
periosteum
596
platelets, RBCs, WBCs are produced in the
bone marrow
597
long bones provide
strength, structure, mobility
598
DCT is responsive to
aldosterone and site of salt reabsorption
599
ligaments attach
bones to other bones
600
tendons attach
bones to muscles
601
another name for bone tissue
osseus tissue
602
nerve endings in skin responsible for sensitivity to vibration and pressure
pacinian corpuscles
603
chief structural unit of compact bone
osteon
604
osteon consist of
lamellae (concentric bone layers) which surround a hollow passageway (Haversian canal)
605
free nerve endings in the skin can detect
temperature, mechanical stimuli (touch/pressure/stretch) or pain (nociception)
606
merkel cells are
mechanoreceptors essential for light touch sensation
607
what surround blood vessels and nerve cells throughout bones and communicate w/ bone cells through what?
haversian canals
canaliculi
608
canaliculi are
small channels that link together lacunae in bones
609
innate immunity are defenses that are always
active and non-specific
610
two layers of dermis
papillary and reticular layers
611
adaptive immunity are defenses that are always
active and specific
612
osteoblasts do what
build bone
613
osteoclasts do what
reabsorb bone
614
osteoblasts mature into
new osteocytes
615
osteocytes are
mature, permanent bone cells
616
osteoclasts reaborb
old osteocytes
617
cell membrane is high permeable to what and slightly permeable to what
K+
Na+
618
movement through leak channels is controlled by
concentration gradients
619
what is cartilage
connective tissue that is firm but flexible
connects bones together
620
avascular and aneural applies to
cartilage
621
avascular means
no blood vessels
622
aneural =
no nerves
623
chondroblasts produces
new matrix
624
chondrocytes are
found in small groups within cavities (lacunae)
625
what is cartilage made of
collagen fibers
elastic fibers
water (80%)
626
cartilage being 80% water means
cartilage can rebound after being compressed
nourishing to cartilage cells
627
norepinephrine is a
catecholamine
increases HR and BP
628
what type of joints are fused together to form sutures?
immovable
629
interphase includes
G1, S, G2 phases
where cell spends most of its life
630
Na+ ions enter cell through
voltage-gated Na+ channels
631
Ca2+ enters the presynaptic cell and allows...
vesicles w/ NTs inside to fuse w/ the axon terminal membrane
NTs release into synaptic cleft
632
