GBIO 107 Final Flashcards
(280 cards)
1
Q
The idea that new species were created by God after catastrophic natural disasters caused massive extinctions is called what?
A
Catastrophism
2
Q
The incorrect assumption from the dark ages that stated that life sprang from nothing (for example frogs came from rain) is called what?
A
???
3
Q
The theory of evolution was derived from four observations, including all of the following except for…?
A
the one that says variations are NOT beneficial to a population and will NOT be passed on to subsequent generations…
4
Q
________ is the term used to describe when internal structures are similar but are modified to serve different functions?
A
homologous structures
5
Q
the fact that whales have pelvic bones and hind legs that they do not use is an example of…?
A
vestigial structures
6
Q
when two species evolve similar structures like bird wings and insect wings but are NOT the same, they are said to be…?
A
analogous structures
7
Q
the flight of the peppered moth in Great Britain, changing coloration, and the development of pesticide resistance in certain insects like mosquitoes are examples of?
A
natural selection
8
Q
______ are accidental and extremely rare, but the only source for new alleles.
A
mutations
9
Q
______ is the immigration and immigration of individuals in and out of a population that allows for the distribution of alleles and prevents divergence.
A
gene flow
10
Q
Co-evolution of two species such as faster deer and smarter wolves is a process of natural selection dependent on what?
A
predator-prey cycle
11
Q
Females mating with the showiest, strongest, and most extravagant males is a strategy of sexual selection that:
a) gives the impression that
b) gives the impression of energy expenditure wasted…
c) gives the impression that a male being a narcissist…
d) gives the impression of the male being healthy and vigorous and therefore the best choice for the survival of her offspring
A
d) gives the impression of the male being healthy and vigorous and therefore the best choice for the survival of her offspring
12
Q
Speciation is dependent on what factors?
a) isolation of a population
b) genetic divergence of a population
c) gene flow
d) a and b
e) b and c
A
d) a and b (isolation of a population and genetic divergence of a population)
13
Q
Ligers are incapable of having offspring. This is an example of ________________.
A
Hybrid infertility
14
Q
Over-hunting of a species such as the passenger pigeon, the great awk and the carolina parakeet, driving these species to extinction, is an example of which cause of extinction?
a) bad luck
b) habitat change
c) localized distribution
d) organism interaction
A
d) organism interaction
15
Q
The bird believed to be extinct by everyone in the world but Mrs. Higgenbotham?
A
Ivory-billed woodpecker
16
Q
The single-greatest cause for extinctions in modern times is attributed to what?
A
habitat loss/change
17
Q
It is believed that the early atmosphere contained all the following elements except for what?
A
oxygen
18
Q
It is believed that cell membranes were formed in the same way that oil and water formed those hollow balls called __________.
A
microspheres
19
Q
The earliest known fossils found and judged to be approximately 3.5 billion years old were what?
A
anaerobic prokaryotes
20
Q
The oldest example of a multi-cellular organism is…
A
green algae
21
Q
According to the _________? of species concept, two individuals are considered to be the same species if what?
A
If they can mate and have fertile offspring.
22
Q
Allopatric speciation requires:
a) gradual evolutionary changes
b)
c) geographic isolation
d) adaptive radiation
e) inbreeding
A
c) Geographic isolation
23
Q
Glypodants - were fossils that resemble modern day…?
A
armadillos
24
Q
The name of the islands that Darwin went to?
A
Galapagos
25
Which of the following is an example of random mating?
a) the largest and strongest male develops a harem
b) female will mate only with the male with the best courtship displays
c) sorority members usually marry fraternity brothers
d) some males mate with any female they encounter
e) cousins marry cousins
d) some males mate with any female they encounter
26
An insect that exhibits resistance to a pesticide...
a) developed a resistance as a response to the pesticide
b) mutated when exposed to the pesticide
c) inherited a gene that made it resistant to the pesticide
d) none of the above
e) all of the above
c) inherited a gene that made it resistant to the pesticide
27
Natural selection occurs in populations in three distinct patterns. In stabilizing selection (typical bell curve. more in the middle.)... have more of...?
the common grade/average (not the extremes)
28
The impact of genetic drift on allele frequencies is seen in a population as:
a) gene flow increases
b) population size decreases
c) mutation rate decreases
d) the number of heterozygous locai increases
e) population size increases
b) population size decreases
29
A general warming trend in the northern climates might decrease the ice bridges that usually form between the islands and upper great lakes. Because animals travel across these bridges, the warming could result in what?
a) more genetic disorders
b) healthier population of animals
c) more mutations
d) decreased gene flow
d) decreased gene flow
30
Genetic divergence in a population may lead to...
speciation
31
Changes in the Mississippi river caused by an earthquake are thought to have caused speciation by...?
allopatry
32
4 of the 5 answers listed below are pre-mating isolating mechanisms... (actually two of them (postmating) in there)
a) temporal
b) hybrid
c) inviability
d) mechanical
e) ecological
f) gametic
b) hybrid and f) gametic
33
Which theory developed by geologists states that sediment layers were from natural processes... and that allows for the earth to be much older than most people believed?
Uniformitarianism
34
______ is defined as a process by which individuals differ from the generations before them. Over long stretches of time, little changes become huge transformations that...
a) uniformitarianism
b) creationism
c) descent with modification
d) catastrophism
c) descent with modification
35
There are many examples of non-random mating. For example, ______ is defined as when two individuals of a species mate with those most like themselves.
Assortative mating.
36
White-tailed deer and Mule deer have a similar diet and resources and can live in the same regions and habitats but they breed at different times to prevent inbreeding. This is what kind of reproductive isolating mechanism?
Temporal
37
If an evolutionary tree shows that manatees evolved from land mammals based on studies from _____ morphology using the basis of non-functional fingernails on their flippers, they would be using what kind of structure as evidence for that evolution?
vestigial?
38
The evolution of large flightless birds such as the ostrich, the rhea and the emu with one common ancestor is explained best by what? that would suggest that they were once part of one giant population?
The Pangea Theory
39
If two different species were to interbreed but the sperm was not able to fertilize the egg, it would be an example of what reproductive isolating mechanism?
Gametic incompatibility
40
______ is the science of looking at the distribution of frequency of extinct and living organisms globally.
bio???
41
Which scenario best defines Lemark's idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics?
a) successfully surviving without using a body part will have no effect on the offspring
b) the offspring have no characteristics passed down from previous generations
c) a man who develops huge muscles from body-building will have children with normal muscles at birth
d) a man who develops huge muscles from body-building will have children with huge muscles at birth
d) a man who develops huge muscles from body-building will have children with huge muscles at birth
42
Characteristics such as metabolism, color and size that help an individual to survive or reproduce in their environment:
adaptations
43
An alternate form of a strand of DNA that gives us differences in the gene pool:
alleles
44
A segment of DNA that stands for specific trait, located on the chromosome:
gene
45
the small-scale changes in allele frequencies:
micro-evolution
46
the frequency of distribution in there inheritance? of alleles in a population
population genetics
47
Cheetahs are an endangered species...but they have a low success rate because almost all the cheetahs have the exact same DNA. Most of these also have a kink in their tail caused by a genetic mutation. These attributes are a result of what process?
Population bottleneck
48
Charles Darwin and others bred domestic pigeons, specifically to produce birds that had certain things such as long feathers on their legs...etc. Those birds still exist today and are evidence of what process?
Artificial selection
49
There's a higher-than-normal occurance of _____ in the Cajun culture and jewish community. Why is that?
Founder effect
50
We continue to see outbreaks of mosquito-born diseases such as West Nile Virus, ____ and ___ because mosquitoes develop a resistance to pesticides......what's going on?
Natural selection
51
The Chicken Pox virus that can cause the disease 'Shingles' uses which pathway of replication that lies dormant, waiting to erupt at a time of stress?
lysogenic
52
Long chains of rod-shaped bacteria are referred to as...?
strepto-bacilli?
53
Baking bread and making wine are dependent on the fungi belonging to which group?
a) ascomycota
b) zygomycota
c) ...
a) ascomycota
54
Which of the following can be called pathogens?
a) virus
b) bacteria
c) protozoans
d) all of the above
d) all of the above
55
The main body of a fungus is above ground or under ground? And is composed of hyphae or mushroom caps?
underground, hyphae
56
_____ Jakobs disease, also known as Kuru in humans, is known to be contracted from consuming which of the following:
a) squirrel brains
b) human brains
c) infected cows
d) all of the above
d) all of the above
57
C?ryons can be relatively easily deactivated by?
a) boiling
b) baking
c) radiation
d) disinfectants
e) none of those
e) none of those
58
The gritty substance you may feel on your teeth after using toothpaste is actually...?
a) small deposits of sand
b) diotimacious earth
c)
b) diotomacious earth
59
which of the strametophiles charactarized by cottony tufts and fibers are responsible for great changes in history by destroying crops France and causing the potato blight in Ireland?
water molds
60
Organisms in the kingdom fungi are considered to be ________ because of the way they acquire nutrients.
extra-cellular digesters
61
Some rod-shaped bacteria such as anthrax are perfect for biological warfare because they can form protective ______ that make them resistant to adverse environmental conditions by encasing DNA and some enzymes in a protective cysts.
endospores
62
saprozoic organisms are _______
feed on dead materials
63
which of the following organisms produce a gas that is trapped in animal feces to be used as an alternative fuel source and are studied as a byproduct of cow flatulence?
methanogens
64
________ covers the cell wall of a bacteria and enables it to stick to each other and on slick surfaces.
slime layer
65
A protozoan source used as a thickening agent in ice creams, jellybeans and salad dressings...?
brown algae
66
If the bird flu were to make the jump to be able to transmit human to human, it would be considered to be a _________ kind of virus and possibly kill millions of people across the globe.
pandemic
67
Protozoan trika-something scalanae, which kills doves with backyard feeders, the _____ which cause ______ disease, and the organism which causes beaver fever are classified in which group?
a) amoeboid protozoans
b)
c) euglanoids
d) flagellated protozoans
d) flagellated protozoans
68
A pellacle is what?
a) a defensive organ
b) a flexible, protective covering
c) a organelle of motion
d) a storage organ
e) a component of a nucleus
b) a flexible, protective covering
69
Short, hair-like projections that cover the body of an organism that are used for movement and bringing food to the mouth parts...?
cilia
70
The major groups of fungi are assigned names on the basis of...?
their reproductive structures
71
Which of the following bacteria found in a domain eubacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce energy?
a) chemoheterotroph
b) chemoautotroph
c) photoheterotroph
d) photoautotroph
d) photoautotroph
72
Bacteria are traditionally classified by what two things?
shape and gram stain
73
4 of the 5 structures listed below are bacterial structures. Select the exception.
a) endospore
b) pilli
c) slim layer
d) nucleus
e) flagella
d) nucleus
74
Which of the following allows bacteria to conjugate?
a) flagella
b) pores
c) slim layer
d) pilli
e) glyco caleses
d) pilli
75
an example of a mutualistic symbiotic relationship is:
a) lichin
b) flagellates in termite guts
c) nitrogen-rich bacteria in root nodules
d) all of them
d) all of them
76
```
Paramecium are able to exchange genetic material in a type of reproduction called ______ where the parents are immediately different, not the offspring?
a) conjugation
b) binary fision
c)
d) mitosis
```
a) conjugation
77
Fungi is in some way similar to plants, having ______ but using _______.
cell wall, chitin
78
Protists are classified by which of the following...?
everything except for color
79
Human disease such as athletes foot, ringworm, and histoplasmosis are caused by what?
fungus
80
Which of these groups are flagellated protozoans?
a) radiolarians
b) euglenoids
c) cellular slime molds
d) diatomes
b) euglenoids
81
Which of the following domains of life do prokaryotes not fall under?
a) archae/bacteria
b) eubacteria
c) eukaryotes
d) all of them contain prokaryotes
c) eukaryotes
82
Growth in reference to prokaryotic species refers to the increase in...?
number of cells
83
The protozoan that is responsible for causing red tides falls into what group?
dinoflagellates
84
Which group does not belong to the protists?
a) protozoans
b) microsporidians
c) free-living zilliates
d) dinoflagellates
e) parasitic cilliates
b) microsporidians
85
A small, simple prokaryotic organism that does not have a nucleus or any other organelle and can be found anywhere...?
bacteria
86
A free-living, prokaryotic organism that is found in and can survive in extreme environments such as salt water, geysers, and anaerobic intestines...?
archaea
87
A flagellated, single-celled organism that's a decomposer, spread by spores, and is responsible for killing the population of frogs on a global scale...?
cytrid
88
An organism that's not alive, and is pathogenic to plants and is only compost of a strand of RNA...? (smaller than a virus)
viroid
89
An organism that has a nucleus and can have organelles that is not an animal or plant or fungus...?
protist
90
A free-living organism that uses pseudopods to engulf its food and can possess a shell or be naked?
amoeba
91
A protein that folded wrong, causing a degenerative fatal, nerve disease...?
p/cryon
92
An organism that must have a host and is composed only of a strand of genetic material and a protein coat...?
virus
93
An organism that can have many different organelles, unicellular or multicellular, autotrophic or heterotrophic, but is defined as having an organism of having fine hairs...?
stremenophile
94
an organism that can be unicellular or multicellular, is a decomposer, parasitic or saprozoic, has cell walls made of chitin...
fungus
95
True or false, bubonic plague was caused by a bacteria carried by fleas and is completely gone from the modern world.
false
96
True or false, the drugs developed from the fungus penicillin is used to fight viral infections.
false (only fights bacterial infections)
97
True or false, sexually-transmitted diseases can caused by protozoans, bacteria or viruses.
true
98
Acellular slime molds form a true plasmodium that can ooze over dead and decaying until they run out of food, then they fruiting bodies that produce pores.
true
99
The number of prokaryotic cells greatly outweighs the number of eukaryotic ells and can be found everywhere.
true
100
Question 50 on test 2...
...lost forever???
101
Plants in this group have adapted structures that make them the most successful and dominant group of plant son the planet. Seeds of this group of plants are closed in a protective ovary, that when ripened, may produce a fruit.
angiosperms
102
This group is evergreen, adapted to cooler, dryer habitat with developed male and female cones.
coniferous
103
These plants reproduce by spores that in a cone shape at the tip of the modified, scale-like hollowed leaves. They also have silica in their pods and stems which make them good pot scrubbers, giving them the common name scouring rushes.
horsetails
104
This species of plant is produced to one species, kept alive through cultivation and aging. Male trees in this group are ornamentals and are imported into the united states. The female trees stink and are not allowed in the U.S.
ginkos
105
...on these plants produce spores on the other sides of fronds. Also the only species of _____ plants that have broad leaves.
ferns
106
Which one of these is a Rhocus?
c)
107
Which one of these is a leaflet?
d)
108
Which one of these indicates the presence of a leaf and can produce flowers or stems?
a) axillary bud
109
which one of these is a blade?
b?
110
which of these plants is alternate, with odd, pinnately compound leaves?
??? (the one no one expected) a leaf=at the node.
111
which one of these plants is opposite, simple leaves?
a)
112
which one of these plants has the most leaves?
a)
113
Plant hormone that prevents aging of plants and can be used commercially to keep cut flowers looking fresh...?
cytokinnins
114
Plant hormone that stimulates flowering, fruit development and seed germination...?
gibberellins
115
Plant hormone that stimulates the ripening of fruit and the separation of cell walls - causes leaves and flowers to fall off...?
ethylene
116
Plant hormone that causes stems to lengthen and used for root growth in transplanted plants...?
auxins
117
Plant hormone that inhibits cell growth, keeps plants dormant until conditions are right for growth.
absissic acid
118
The ovary, which develops into fruit, is at letter...
b)
119
The highly-colored and fragrant portion of the flower...
d)
120
The pollen is produced at which letter...
a)
121
The absorption of water and minerals...
roots
122
reproductive organs of the plant...
in the flower
123
seeds inside...
the fruit
124
the parts above the line...
the shoot system
125
_____ are small-bodied plants that built up large quantities over time. Extremely important as a fuel source in some countries and used medicinally as a poultice.
peat moss
126
.... cells which are thickened with cellulose for structure is an example of what kind of tissue?
ground tissue
127
the male part of the flower is called
stamen
128
Generally, photosynthesis takes place where?
in the leaves
129
Which of the following is not a characteristic of land plants?
multicellular prokaryotes (they're eukaryotes)
130
the region of the root that converts sugars and stores it as starch is called the
cortex
131
which of the following is an adaptation that made land plants successful?
development of seeds and pollen
132
Stalk that supports the individual simple leaf is called?
petiole
133
The rigid polymer that acts as sticky glue-like substance in plants and provides strength and structure is called?
lignin
134
Non-vascular plants that lack true roots, stems and leaves and normally live in a moist environment are called?
....blah blah ophytes
135
Eggs are to birds as what are to plants?
seeds
136
The structure that allows for the exchange of gasses such as carbon dioxide and oxygen in a photosynthetic plant are called?
stomata
137
_____ are long, fine extensions that increase the absorbative surface area and therefore increasing the .... of water and nutrients...?
root hairs
138
which of the following is not a characteristic/function of the root system?
photosynthesis
139
which of the following is not an adaptation that made land plants successful?
chitin
140
which of the following is not a characteristic of monopods?
two coletins
141
the vascular system that is responsible for bringing water and nutrients up from the roots to the leaves is called
xylum?
142
nonreproductive parts of the flower are called what?
calyx and corolla
143
leaf venation where the secondary veins tend to curve away from the mid rib and then run paralelle to each other are called
archoid?
144
identification of plants are important for which of the following reasons?
all of those
145
which of the following is not part of the plant shoot system?
roots
146
the veins of the leaf are used for?
transporting stuff
147
what two adaptations allowed plants to grow tall?
lignin and vascular dissue
148
The sporophyte stage of the alteration generation cycle refers to..?
only word you had to look for was sporophyte and diploid
149
An example of a fruit that is a pome and an accessory fruit is...
apple
150
an example of a fruit that has a pulpy mass and seeds embedded inside of it - a berry - is...
tomato
151
True or false, within kingdom animalia there are two general groups, and the group that is considered to have the most diverse and numerous species that all have a backbone are referred to as invertebrates.
false
152
True or false, all organisms in the kingdom animalia have life cycles that include different stages.
true
153
True or false, organisms in the kingdom animalia that produce their own food are said to be heterotrophic.
false
154
True or false, a key evolutionary innovation for animals was the development of a coelum, that allowed for organs to move around in the body while still being protected.
true
155
True or false, a complete digestive tract has one opening that is used for nutrient acquisition and waste removal.
false
156
True or false, segments of organisms are repeating sub-units that in some organisms can be fused and combined to have different functions.
true
157
True or false, a major evolutionary innovation for vertebrates was the evolution of jaws or modified vertebrae.
true
158
Which of these things is NOT a general characteristic of the animal kingdom?
a) mobile during some stage of their life
b) aerobic
c) heterotrophic
d) have a backbone
e) multicellular
d) have a backbone
159
Which of these is not a feature used to define and group species in the kingdom animalia?
a) body symmetry
b) type of gut
c) presence of body cavities
d) coephilization
e) all are used
e) all are used
160
Body symmetry that has two perfect mirror images when divided centrally is called...?
bilateral
161
The ventral side of bilateral organisms is considered to be what?
the belly
162
An organism with a false body cavity that has an incomplete mesoderm, only on the body wall and not lining the internal structure, is called a ...?
a) acoelomate
b) pseudomate
c) pseudocoelomate
d) papermate
c) pseudocoelomate
163
Sponges are an example of phylum...?
porifera
164
A miniature version of the parent that falls off and lives independently is an example of a type of asexual reproduction in sponges called...?
???
165
pneumanicists are present in nidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, etc.) ...?
stinging devices on long threads that ooze toxins or...
166
which of the following insulates, protects and cushions various internal organs from stresses of body wall movement by forming a true cavity...
coelum
167
Sponges acquire nutrients by being what?
filter-feeders
168
Animals that are homaphroditic usually have what?
both male and female reproductive organs
169
a scolex...?
the barb interior attachment organ of a tapeworm
170
The most successful of the invertebrate group with respect to the number of species is what?
arthropods
171
Exoskeletons are characteristic of which group?
arthropods
172
The mantle is found only among...?
mollusks
173
The cornae features still present in a human adult...
a nerve cord
174
sharks and rays belong to...?
cartilages fishes
175
the majority of the ocean's biomass is made up of ______ and is extremely important to the food chain of the marine system...
krill, cochpods?
176
adaptations for flight in birds include all but which of the following?
scales
177
which of the following is not an adaptation of arthropods?
mantle (13:20 on recording)
178
______ is the process of changing from larvae into an adult that occurs in members of arthropoda and can be radical or gradual.
metamorphasis
179
Which of the following is not true of mammals?
d) all give birth to fully developed, live young
180
Wildlife biologists consider ______ to be the key indicators of the health of the ecosystem because of their sensitivity to environmental toxins.
amphibians
181
Reptiles are completely free of the aquatic habitat because of which of the following?
d) all of them
182
The ceolocant is the only living example of a ______. It was thought to be extinct for over 8 million years.
low-finned fish
183
The class of vertebrates that we like to talk about the most
class A-Bs?
184
The lamp-rey ell is an example of what? It has a round mouth like a grinding wheel and a skeleton of cartilage. It attaches itself to the sides of fish and eats holes in them...
jawless fishes
185
Worms with a true coelum, bilateral symmetry, and a cuticle...?
segmented worms
186
Includes tapeworms and flukes...?
flatworms
187
Have radial symmetry, tentacles, and nemasis ....?
nidarians
188
Have bilateral symmetry with a tapered body and many are parasitic...?
roundworms
189
Have pores that trap food and no tissues or organs...?
sponges
190
(phylum) Includes snails, clams, octopuses, and the chambered nodlus...?
mollusk
191
(phylum) includes sea urchins, and starfish...?
big e word, econodramata?
192
(phylum Includes crawish, spiders, and butterflies?
arthropods
193
(phylum) Includes heartworms, pinworms, and hookworms...?
nemotodes
194
(phylum) includes bony fishes, reptiles, and puppies
cordata
195
(class) snails and slugs, mollusks that crawl on a belly foot...?
gastropoda
196
(class) body divided into three parts - the head, the thorax and the abdomen, has six legs and two pairs of wings...?
insects
197
(class) have eight walking legs, are carnivorous, some members carry lyme disease...?
arachnids
198
(class) have ten legs, most live in water, extremely important food source in the marine food web...?
crustacia
199
(class) only mollusk with a well-developed head with large brains, capable of learning and memory...?
sephilopoda
200
Ecology
- focus on processes and relationships
- interactions with environment (biotic & abiotic)
- talking about EVERYTHING
200
Ecology
- focus on processes and relationships
- interactions with environment (biotic & abiotic)
- talking about EVERYTHING
201
Subdivisions of Ecology
- Population E
- Behavioral E
- Ecosystem E
- Watershed
- Biosphere E
- Habitat/Community E
202
Behavioral Ecology
- why things act the way they do
203
behavior =
- an observed reaction to a stimulus
| - 2 major groups
204
2 Major Groups of Behavior
1) Innate
| 2) Learned
205
Innate Behavior
- Instictive. Behaior done the first time exposed to stimulus without prompting. (Done automatically).
- ex: squirrels bottle fed, captive raised their whole lives, never seen the outdoors. What's the first thing the do with the nut? Bury it! It's instinctive
- ex: yellow-billed cuckoos. bird parasites - don't take care of their own babies, lay eggs in other nests. First thing they do when they hatch, reach out and kick out anything else out of the nest. WHy does mom feed strange baby? Instinctive to mother open mouth of chick.
- we also have: babies, rubbed cheek, turn to suckle. Babies automatically afraid of snakes - learn not to be.
206
Learned Behaviors =
- Trial and error. Modified by experiences.
| - Different types.
207
Different Types of Learned Behaviors
1) Habituate Behaviors
2) Conditioning Behaviors
3) Social Behaviors
208
Habituate Behaviors
- habit-forming.
- stops reacting to a stimulas
- ex: sea anemones (niderians, have nedocytes), if you touch it, will sting you. Yet clown fish (nemo) and live there - why? Because continue to touch it, because nothing bad happens to it, sea anemone stops reacting to it. stops stinging the clown fish because it doesn't hurt them.
- ex: catfish ponds. what happens when you have a tone of them in a pond? bird buffet. Can't kill birds because they're federally protected. Ya know the blow-up boogie-woogie ponds? started on catfish ponds. But birds became habituated to it - farmers had to move to air cannons. At first, fly away, but now habituated, not scared and just sit there.
209
Conditioning Behaviors
- complex learning.
| - different kinds.
210
Different Kinds of Conditioning Behaviors
1) Classic Conditioning
2) Operant Conditioning
3) Aversive Conditioning
211
Classic Conditioning
ex: Paulou's dogs. Did all these experiments with dogs. If you give dog meat, they salivate. So give meat and ring bell at same time... over time, ring bell and they salivate.
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Operant Conditioning
- a reward for a good behavior
- creating a response (behavior)
- ex: skinner/Skinner boxes. Chicken plays the piano! No. Chicken has learned if he hits the button, corn falls out. If he does do da do da do, a lot of corn falls out.
- ex: use with kids all the time
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Aversive Conditioning
- "negative reword" (spanking)
- does not work in the long run
- ex: back to the fish pond. Wasn't working, so farmers petitioned the government. So now try aversive - get a permit that allows them to kill x number of protected birds a year. So now kill a couple birds every time cannon fires. But what happens to those birds? Keep coming back. Why? He died but I didn't.
- ex: bears. we have black bears in LA - population is rebounding. But now we have a bear problem - actually not a bear problem, a people problem. WHen cute little bear shows up in backyard eating birdseed, oh so adorable! Start feeding it other things... what happens when bear comes back next day and you're not there? Torn everything up. Next day lock everything up in garage, what happens? Gets in your house looking for stuff. Now what? call wildlife and fisheries to come catch it, trap it, put it in a new place to release them. Shoot it with rubber buckshot, chase with dogs, bang and yell, etc... but what happens next time it sees a birdfeeder or garbage can? (because YOU can't shoot them). *NOT a bear problem, it's a people problem.
ex: does spanking work? no. because "if I don't get caught... it's worth it."
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Some animals can find specific locations:
- ex: desert ant, cataglyphis fortis, that feeds on dead arthropods in the barren salt pans of the Sahara. Wander through desert, searching for food - once found, take a straight, direct route home.
- ex: birds migrate thousands of miles each year, returning to the same nesting location where they bred before.
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3 Ways animals find different locations:
- Piloting
- Sun, Star, or Magnetic Orientation
- True Navigation
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Piloting
- animal uses distant objects (landmarks) when finding its way.
- requires a sort of "mental map" of the terrain
- limitation = does not work in unfamiliar terrain
- ex: beewolf wasps use nearby landmarks to find their nest hole when returning from a foraging trip.
- ex: Homing pigeons also use landmarks when in the vicinity of their loft.
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Sun, Star, or Magnetic Orientation
- orienting themselves to the landscape by maintaining a constant angle to a celestial object, such as the sun.
- may also require an internal clock if angle changes during the day.
- gets it going in the right direction, then may use piloting once in familiar territory
- night migrants use moon or star patterns. ex: indigo buntings judge location by referring to position of north star. but doesn't develop this ability unless exposed to northern sky before beginning migratory flight in autumn.
- many animals can detect magnetic fields - experimentally shifting in the field produces corresponding shifts in homing.
- ex: African mole rats are rodents that live in underground colonies and are nearly blind. dig longest tunnels of any mammal - 200 meters. Typically dig in a southerly direction. Detect magnetic cues - alter tunnels in response to shifts in magnetic field.
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True Navigation
- requires that an animal in unfamiliar terrain can understand its current position and make its way to a destination without using information that it collected on its way or relying on any stimulus that comes from the destination.
- only a few animal species are known to have this:
- homing pigeon, sea turtle, spiny lobster.
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foraging
- searching for and collecting food
- animals spend a lot of time doing
- techniques vary greatly. ex: desert and wander in search of dead insects, spiders spin webs to ensnare pray, packs of African wild dogs work together to hunt large prey, some fish have modified fin spines to entice prey (angler fish)...
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Ways animals find food (foraging)
- Search image
| - Optimal foraging theory
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search image (foraging)
- improvement in a predator's ability to detect inconspicuous prey
- ex: blue jays peck keys when moth appears... doesn't work with more than one species of moth.
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Optimal Foraging Theory
- predicts that an animal's food-finding strategy should maximize the amount of energy (measured in calories) collected per unit time.
- ex: celery v. choc cake v. choc cake crumbled and scattered.
- each animal has a limited ability to remember a previous visit to or how profitable a food site was.
- ex: bee going from flower to flower
- once food found, animal may incur handling costs before it can actually eat
- ex: northwestern crows. search along shore at low tied for snails called whelks. pick it up, fly over rocky area, swoop up and drop snail on rocks. If shell breaks, crow eats. If not, repeats dropping 'till it does. Tested - optimal drop hight = 5 meters, the average crow flight to drop= 5.23!
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Behaviors that Improve/ Keys to Survival
1) Finding Specific Locations
2) Balance Energy Content and Costs of Acquiring Food
3) Avoiding Predation
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Avoiding Predation
- morphological and behavioral adaptations that reduce their chances of becoming someone else's meal.
1) weapons
2) distraction displays
3) living in groups (selfish herd)
- camouflage, shapes and markings, looking/acting like predators, fake eyespots, poisons, quills, spray, warning colors/patterns (skunk), etc.
- ex: bombardier beetle - plumbing system resembles liquid-fueled rocket. Separate reservoirs inside beetle hold quinones and Hydrogen Peroxide. When threatened, two liquids enter another chamber with enzymes, boil, and get sprayed on attacker.
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distraction displays
- divert a predator's attention away from a nest or den.
- ex: broken-wing display of killdeers that lures predators away from young
- ex: gazelles and stotting
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"Many eyes" effect
- many individuals are more likely to spot a predator than one
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selfish herd
- individuals behaving selfishly try to position themselves os that as many of their companions as possible are between them and the predator.
- in school of fish, result = ever-tightening group
- simplest advantage of being in group = dilution effect: by getting in group, changes of being picked off by a predator are reduced.
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Social Behaviors
- interactions among members of the same species
- includes courtship and mating, interaction with groups
- sociobiology = attempts to understand social behavior in context of an animal's fitness
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Courtship (Social Behaviors)
- many species have elaborate courtship behavior patterns
- ex: fruit flies, penguins
- have three functions
- in many mammals, courtship is necessary to trigger ovulation. ex: male cat biting female's neck to trigger ovulation.
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Functions of Courtship Rituals
1) Displays are generally species- specific
2) Coordinate the physiological and hormonal states of the participants
- complicated! ex: ring dove.
3) Provide each participant with information about suitability of the mate.
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Sexual Selection (Social Behaviors)
- Charles Darwin argued that traits improved an individual's changes of getting a mate
- sexual selection = form of natural selection that results from variation in the ability to obtain mates. Can lead to...
- sexual dimorphism = a situation in which the two sexes look very different. Many sexually selected traits seem to be of no value to survival - may even be harmful.
- some traits come from intrasexual selection = when males compete for access to females. ex: Northern elephant seals, deer, peacock
- sexually selected traits can be very costly - even compromise survival. ex: brightness of a rooster's comb matches how many parasites they have - the brighter, the fewer.
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Mating Systems
1) Polygamy
| 2) Monogamy
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Polygamy
- general term that encompases all forms of multiple mating, in which either males or females have multiple sexual partners.
- polygyny = form of polygamy in which one male has exclusive sexual access to more than one female.
- male is not likely to help care for young. ex: elephant seal known to trample pups in attempts to mate
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Monogamy
- both male and female have one sexual partner
- species in which males and females resemble each other tend to have monogamous mating system
- most bird species are monogamous - both parents needed to care for nest.
- males rarely care for young alone. (v. male seahorse can become pregnant...) why? changes of paternity for amphibians and fishes = greater. internal v. external fertilization
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Human Reproductive Choices Reflect Natural Selection
1) human females make a larger investment in gamete production that males do
2) sexual dimorphism - males of most races taller, heavier, more muscular, suggesting male-male competition in past. 85% of known societies have had or frequented polygamy,
3) humans have internal fertilization. women were more likely to mate with someone else the longer their partner stayed away.
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Group Behaviors
- Costs and benefits
- Dominance hierarchies and Territoriality Reduce Competition
- Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism Explain some Acts of Cooperation
- Eusocial Animals have Highly Developed Societies
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Benefits of Group Living
1) finding food
- sharing information about food location ex: honybee dance
2) protection
- huddle to conserve body heat
- against predators (schools of fish, spotting them)
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Costs of Group Living
- Predators may be more likely to detect groups of animals than individuals
- members of same species are likely to compete for same resources
- resulting aggression may interfere with rearing of young (new males take over a lion pride and kill the cubs sired by previous males)
- promote spread of diseases and parasites. (ex: colonies of black-tailed prairie dogs more susceptible to bubonic plague than less-socialized white-tailed.)
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Dominance Hierarchies (social behaviors)
- dominance hierarchy = social order with dominant and submissive members. Individuals lear their place in "pecking order" from previous interactions.
- reduce time, energy and risk of fighting.
- higher-ranking individuals generally have higher fitness.
- lower-ranking individuals generally do better going out on their onw.
ex: rhesus monkeys
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Trritoriality (reducing competition - group behaviors)
- territory = space that an animal defends against intruders.
- key to territory formation = economic defendability so that the benefits (exclusive access to resources) outway the costs (energy expenditure, risk of injury, loss of feeding or mating opportunities)
- not exclusively associated with group living.
- established by olfactory or vocal signs
- ex: hyena mark borders with latrine areas, whereas male gibbons signal theirs with loud whoop-gobble calls.
- eventually neighbors become conditioned and need only occasional reminders.
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altruistic social behavior
= seems to lower animals fitness for good of others
- doesn't include parental behavior, risking lives for offspring.
- reduces fitness***
- share as many genes with one of our own offspring as we do with two of our nieces and nephews
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inclusive fitness
= the sum of direct and indirect fitness.
- indv. can be expected to behave so as to maximize inclusive fitness.
most familiar way = help offspring survive and reproduce, another way = maximize inderect fitness.
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Kin selection
= an individual reduces its own direct fitness but assists the survival and repduction of nodescendant relatives.
ex: squirrels put themselves at risk with alarm calls when saw predator. Females within vicinity most likely to call, have family in area.
- ex: Florida scrub jay, some birds forego breeding to help parents raise siblings
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reciprocal altruism
individuals might help others at a cost to themselves, if it is likely that they will be paid back at a cost to themselves.
- individuals must have high likelihood of encountering one another for possible repayment. ex: vampire bats sharing blood of socially around them a lot/may repay
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eusociality
- a social structure that includes extensive division of labor, especially in reproduction
- petome of organization
- bee hive
- relatively common in insects of Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps)
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population
- members of the same species that inhabit the same area
- ex: Douglas fir trees
- no population lives in isolation - communities
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community
- a group of interacting populations
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biotic
living
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ecosystem
includes the community plus the abiotic
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ebiotic
nonliving, environment within a defined area
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habitat
- the physical place where members of a population typically live
- one part of the niche
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niche
- total of all the resources a species requires for its survival, growth and reproduction.
- includes physical habitat, salinity, termperature, light, water availability, etc. (abiotic) and an organisms place in the food chain (biotic)
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How to describe community differences
1) species richness
| 2) relative abundance
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species richness
the total number of species occupying a habitat
- ex: a patch of prairie may conteain about 100 plant species, whereas an equal sized area of desert might house only six types. So prairie more diverse than desert. But two communities with same species richness may not be equally diverse
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relative abundance
the proportion of the community that each species occupies.
| - prairie example -
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Types of Species Interactions
1) Competition
2) Mutualism
3) Commensalism
4) Parasitism
5) Herbivory
6) Predation
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Competition
- two or more species vie for the same limited resource
- ex: two species of barnacles compete for space in intertidal zone
- copetitive exclusion principle = two species cannot coexist indefinitely in the same nich. the one that requires more of the resources will eventually replace the other.
- resource partitioning = multiple species use the same resource in a lslightly diffferent way or at a different time.
- ex: warbler species
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Mutualism
- Symbiosis in which both partners benefit
| - ex: algae in coral animals, mycorrhizal fungi in plant roots, annimal pollinators of flowering plants
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Commensalism
- Symbiosis in which one partner benefits with no effect on the other
- ex: Moss plants on tree bark
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Parasitism
Symbiosis in which one partner benefits and the otheis harmed.
- ex: tick on a deer; tapeworm in a human... etc.
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Herbiovory
- ANimal consumes a plant or other photosynthetic organism
| - ex: cattle grazin onf grassland
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Predation
- animal consumes another animal
| - cat eating birds; bat eating insects
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symbiosis
- literally, "living together"
- one species lives in or on another.
- may take several forms...
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various forms of Symbiotic Relationships
1) Mutualistic
2) Commensalism
3) Parasitism
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Succession
gradual change in a community's species composition
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primary succession
occurs in an area where no community previously existed
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pioneer species
- are first to colonize the area
| - lichens
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secondary succession
- mostly everywhere
- occurs where a community is disturbed but not destroyed, some soil and life remain
- fires, hrricanes, agriculture
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climax community
- hypothesis that primary and secondary succession eventually lead to a so-called climax community which remains fairly constant
- few if any achieve this
- even forests 500-1000 years old are changing
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food chain
series of organisms that successively eat one another
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trophic level
an organism's position along a food chain
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Trophic levels
- primary producer/autotroph
- consumers/heterotrophs
- decomposers
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detritus
dead organisms and feces
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food web
a network of interconnected food chains, such as the Antartic web.
- even the top predator (killer whale) rely on microscopic organisms.
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gross primary production
- the total amount of energy that is trapped or "fixed" by all autotrophs in an ecosystem
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net primary production
- after using energy to make ATP for growth, maintenance and reproduction/lose heat energy.
- remaining energy in the producer level
- it is the amount of energy available for consumers to eat
- laws of thermodynamics
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about 1/10 the energy at one trophic level is available to the next higher rank in the food chain
true
| - actually ranges from 2 to 30%
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pyramid of energy
represents each trophic level as a blck whose size is directly proportional to the energy stored in biomass per united time.
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biomagnification
- a chemical becomes more and more concentrated in organisms at successfively higher trophic levels
- happens two characteristics: 1) dissolve fat 2) chemicals that biomagnify are not readily degraded
- ex: DDT - banned in U.S. 1971 - weakened eggshells
