gender Flashcards

Question

What is oxytocin

Answer 1

A hormone that causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation males ⚫ Oxytocin is produced in large quantities during labour and after childbirth

Answer 2

Bruce and Brian Reimer were twins born in 1965, and after a botched circumcision at 6 months of age, Bruce was left without a penis ⚫ Their traumatised parents called Dr John Money, a psychologist developing a theory on Gender Neutrality ⚫ He theorised that biological sex was less important than nurture in establishing gender identity, and encouraged Bruce’s parents to raise him as a girl ⚫ He was raised in a stereotypically feminine way Brenda never properly adjusted to life as a female and experienced many psychological and emotional problems

Answer 3

James Dabbs Found that in prison ,males with higher levels of testosterone were like to commit sex crimes

Answer 4

O’Connor et al. (2004) increased testosterone in a sample of healthy males and observed no significant differences in sexual behaviour (interaction or drive) ⚫ There were no differences in aggression or anger either

Answer 5

Some argue that while chromosomes and hormones play and important role in sex, they are not as important in gender development ⚫ Some argue that if biological structures played a significant role, we would observe bigger differences between male and female behaviour ⚫ Western research shows that people identify more withandrogynous characteristics over recent years – difficult to explain with chromosomes and hormones ⚫ Social norms (SLT, nurture) may better explain differences in gender identity than biolog

Answer 6

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation, often associated with physical and psychological symptoms

Answer 7

-Klinefelter’s Syndrome ⚫ Turner’s Syndrome

Answer 8

A syndrome affecting males where the genotype has an extra X chromosome (XXY)

Answer 9

Tall, thin physique ⚫ Small, infertile testes

Answer 10

Poorly developed language and reading skills ⚫ Passivity or shyness

Answer 11

A syndrome affecting females where the genotype is missing an X chromosome (XO)

Answer 12

No menstrual cycle (the ovaries do not develop) ⚫ No breast development – instead they have a broad ‘shield’ chest

Answer 13

Higher than average reading ability ⚫ Poor visual-spatial memory and mathematical ability

Answer 14

Research on atypical chromosome patterns has implications for the nature-nurture debate – how? ⚫ by comparing characteristics of those with atypical chromosome patterns with those who have typical patterns, we can infer that any differences in psychological/physical characteristics are biological (nature) ⚫ E.g. those with Turner’s syndrome likely have better reading ability than others due to nature (XO) than nurture

Answer 15

E.g. those with Turner’s syndrome may be treated as immature in the first place or encouraged to behave in that way by parents, teachers,

Answer 16

high real life application Research into atypical chromosome patterns increases insight into the syndromes associated, making diagnosis quicker and easier Herlihy et al. (2011) researched 87 male ppts with Klinefelter’s syndrome. They found that those diagnosed with Klinefelter’s syndrome at a very young age were significantly better at managing their condition compared to those diagnosed in adulthood Furthermore, treatments have been developed to help manage symptoms – testosterone replacement therapy for those with Klinefelter’s, Oestrogen replacement therapy for those with Turner’s L: Therefore, developing our understanding has theoretical value, as well as real life and practical application

Answer 17

methodological issues Small, limited samples Cases of each syndrome are rare and only those with most the extreme, problematic symptoms are identified and used to inform research Without big enough samples, the data on each syndrome is incomplete E.g. Boada et al. (2009) reviewed longitudinal research on those with Klinefelter’s syndrome and found that many do not experience psychological issues and live successful lives, both academically and personally

Answer 18

Kohlberg’s theory (1966) is a cognitive-developmental theory that suggests one’s gender identity develops and becomes more sophisticated with age This is not due to experience developing with age (learning) but it is due to biological maturation

Answer 19

gender identity 2 years

Answer 20

When a child recognises that they are boy or girl and can label others in the same way around age 3, they can identify other people as male or female they don’t properly understand gender E.g.

Answer 21

gender stability

Answer 22

When a child understands that their gender is fixed External appearances are confusing e.g a man with longer hair

Answer 23

gender constancy

Answer 24

When a child realises that gender remains the same over time and in different situations This realisation starts between ages 6-7 They are no longer confused by external appearances They begin to identify with others that share their gender when gender stereotypes are learned

Answer 25

Research has shown that gender stereotypes start to emerge at around age 6 Damon (1997) told a story to 4-6 year olds about a boy named George who liked to play with dolls When the children were asked to comment, the 4yr olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls. The 6yr olds however, said George was wrong to play with dolls validates gender stability where external apparances are not understood validates gender constancy where gender stereotypes have already developed

Answer 26

gender staility they understand that gender is fixed for themseles but cant apply this to others External appearances are confusing gender constancy no longer confused by external appearances begin to identify with others that share their gender when gender stereotypes are learned

Answer 27

Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that children as young as 4 acknowledge gender appropriate behaviour Children reported feeling ‘good’ about playing with certain toys and felt ‘bad’ about playing with others This suggests that gender stereotypes start to emerge as soon as children identify as male or female

Answer 28

P :Kohlberg’s theory has been critiqued for using unsatisfactory methods to inform stages of gender development E:Kohlberg relied on interviews with children as young as 2-3 to inform stages. E: Children may not have the vocabulary to answer the questions correctly – wrong answers may indicate a lack of understanding of the question rather than a lack of gender development C: Furthermore, Bem (1989) critiqued how gender constancy is assessed. Children are required to understand that gender is fixed despite changes in appearance, but appearance is what is used in real life to distinguish between genders So it’s not surprising when children react with confusion when asked to identify gender using clothing, hairstyles etc. The way gender constancy is assessed may not represent what children actually know low explanatory power, low internal vaidity

Answer 29

P :it is unclear exactly when and how understanding other people’s genders influences their thoughts and behaviours E:children acknowledge other people’s genders are fixed, seek same gender role models and develop gender role stereotypes in this stage – it is unlikely to all happen at once C:Martin et al. (2002) suggest that there are different degrees of gender constancy Children may initially seek same gender role models once they acknowledge the importance of gender before age 6 This may later influence the child’s understanding of gender norms (clothes to wear, attitudes, etc.) L: Therefore, gender constancy may be more gradual than Kohlberg suggests

Answer 30

An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that develop from experience Once a child has established their gender identity (age 2-3) they will start to search their environments for information that will encourage the development of their gender schema.

Answer 31

Young children will initially rely on gender stereotypes to build their schema

Answer 32

Children are better at remembering and understanding the gender schema that matches their own gender Boys know more about gender-appropriate behaviours for boys (the in-group) than for girls (the out-group) and vice-versa

Answer 33

This is because children pay more attention to information that is relevant to their own gender identity, so their ‘own-gender’ schema is more sophisticated

Answer 34

Martin and Halverson (1983) did a memory task with children under 6, who had to remember images of different adults performing either gender-appropriate tasks or gender inappropriate tasks E.g. a woman washing dishes, a woman fixing a car, etc. They found that children were better able to recall the images of gender-appropriate behaviours a week later When recalling the gender-inappropriate behaviours, the children would ‘correct’ the gender of the adult to ‘match’ the behaviour –

Answer 35

Gender schema theory can explain individual differences in gender development, especially across cultures In some cultures, there are traditional gender norms in place – children learn that women play a nurturing role and men are breadwinners – these norms construct their schemas In cultures where gender roles are less rigid, children are more likely to develop a gender schema that contain less stereotypical ideas Gender schema theory can explain not only how gender schemas are transmitted within societies, but also why they differ around the world

Answer 36

Zosuls et al. (2009) did a longitudinal study on 82 children from age 9 months to 21 months They received reports from the mothers twice a week about their child’s language and they filmed the children during play at 17 and 21 months They measured how long it took for children to label themselves as boy or girl – this took an average of 19 months, as soon as they learned to communicate with language This suggests that children may have an understanding of their gender identity before they can verbally communicate it

Answer 37

Gender identity doesn’t exist until stage 3 – phallic stage Phallic stage – age 3-6 – pleasure focuses on genitals

Answer 38

Oedipus complex – castration anxiety causes identification with the father

Answer 39

Electra complex – penis envy – blame on mother for suspected castration – accepts unfortunate fate and identifies with the mother

Answer 40

⚫ Some research suggests that boys need fathers present during the phallic stage to develop a ‘normal’ gender identity ⚫ Rekers and Morey (1990) interviewed 49 boys aged 3-11 along with their families to rate their gender identities ⚫ An independent clinical psychologist used a 9-point scale ⚫ 75% of those judged to be ‘gender disturbed’ had neither a biological father or father substitute living at home ⚫ How does this support the psychodynamic explanation? ⚫ It suggests boys need their fathers to identify with at an early stage, validating the role of the Oedipus comple

Answer 41

Most research doesn’t indicate that there is a relationship between absent fathers and gender identity issues ⚫ Bos and Sandfort (2010) compared 63 children with two lesbian parents and 68 children with two heterosexual parents ⚫ Those with lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes but there were no differences in psychological adjustment or gender identity ⚫ This suggests fathers aren’t crucial (therefore the Oedipus complex isn’t crucial) for gender developm

Answer 42

Freud’s theory has been critiqued for placing too much focus on male development with very little offered on female development ⚫ He wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex but admitted women were a mystery to him Criticised for being androcentric ⚫ It took Carl Jung to develop the theory of the Electra complex ⚫ Penis envy reflects a male-focused perspective where males are seen to be the more powerful/superior sex ⚫ It is socially sensitive to explain female gender development as a consequence of failing to be a man

Answer 43

Freud’s explanation for gender development is considered pseudoscience ⚫ Concepts are unconscious and therefore untestable (unfalsifiable) ⚫ Evidence is subjective (case studies) no objective or empirical evidence for penis envy, castration anxiety, etc. ⚫ Potential researcher bias (Hans’ father was Freud’s buddy)

Answer 44

children learn gender-related behaviour via observation of parents, peers, teachers, culture and media

Answer 45

Direct reinforcement – children are directly reinforced (e.g. praised) for gender-appropriate behaviour

Answer 46

Vicarious reinforcement – children imitate behaviours that they see to be reinforced and do not imitate behaviours they see to be punished

Answer 47

Smith and Lloyd (1978) dressed 4-6 month olds in either boys clothes or girls clothes ⚫ They found that when interacting with adults, those assumed to be boys were more likely to be given a hammer-shaped rattle and were encouraged to be adventurous and active. ⚫ The same babies in girls clothes were more likely to be given a cuddly doll, were complimented as ‘pretty’ and encouraged to be passive

Answer 48

⚫ It could be argued that although adults do demonstrate differential reinforcement, it may not be the cause of gender development ⚫ Adults (e.g. parents) may reinforce gender differences that may already be present in infants (innate

Answer 49

can explain differences in gender development across cultures ⚫ Children are observing different gender-related behaviours in their environments some more traditional and stereotypical than others ⚫ And mediational processes explain why some behaviours are imitated and others are not (individual differences) cutltural differences

Answer 50

SLT cannot explain how learning gender-related behaviours develop and change over time ⚫ According to SLT, learning via observation and imitation happens in the same way across any age ⚫ But it may be illogical to assume that a 2yr old learns gender-appropriate behaviour in the same way as a 9yr old ⚫ The theory ignores the role that age and maturation may play in gender development too simplistic

Answer 51

⚫ Culture – the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group in society ⚫ Media – communication channels (TV, film, books) that make news, entertainment, education and data available

Answer 52

Gender roles – a set of behaviours and attitudes considered appropriate for each gender

Answer 53

Studying cultural similarities and differences in gender-role behaviour across cultures can help separate the influence of nature and nurture on gender roles ⚫ Where we see gender-role behaviours being consistent across cultures, we can conclude that they are innate (nature) ⚫ Where we see gender-role behaviours being specific to a particular culture (culture-specific) we can conclude that they are due to social learning (nurture)

Answer 54

Mead (1935) studied gender roles in different cultural groups from the island of Samoa ⚫ The Tchambuli women were dominant leaders and the men were passive and ‘decorative’ • The biological relationship between sex and gender may not be as strong or direct as we think – gender roles are likely to be culturally determined • Furthermore, although Mead found in later research that many gender-typical behaviours seem to be universal, they are still likely to be learned via cultural norms rather than being innate

Answer 55

⚫ Buss (1995) investigated mate preferences across cultures and found consistent patterns across 37 countries from all continents ⚫ In all 37, women preferred men with more wealth and resources whilst men preferred women with more youth and physical attractiveness ⚫ Munroe and Munroe (1975) also found that in most societies, labour is divided using gender ⚫ (men are the breadwinners, women are the nurturers) ⚫ This suggests that some gender-role behaviours may be innate, despite the influence of cultur

Answer 56

Media provides the role models that children identify with and eventually imitate – models for children are likely to be same-sex models

Answer 57

⚫ Rigid stereotypes – Furnham and Farragher (2000) analysed TV adverts and found that men were more likely to be shown in professional contexts with autonomous roles whilst women were more often shown in domestic settings with familial roles

Answer 58

Media show that they are possible the carry out gender roles – increasing the child’s belief that they can do the same in the future ⚫ Mitra et al. (2019) analysed the attitudes of ppts in India after watching a 78 episode detective drama aimed at challenging deep-rooted gender stereotypes ⚫ Girls who’d watched the show saw themselves as more capable of working outside of the home than girls who hadn’t watched the show ⚫ This shows that media can increase self-efficacy in adopting gender-role behaviour

Answer 59

Strong, constant feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with their assigned sex ⚫ Those with gender dysphoria tend to dress like, use mannerisms and display characteristics often associated with the opposite gender

Answer 60

Brain sex theory

Answer 61

⚫ This theory suggests that differences in brain structure cause gender dysphoria ⚫ In particular, the Bed nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BST/BNST) – also referred to as extended amygdala ⚫ It is involved in emotional responses and sexual behaviour in male rats

Answer 62

Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

Answer 63

Kruijver et al. (2000) found that transgender females (male to female) have a BST more similar to size of biological females ⚫ Zhou et al. (1995) also found that transgender males had a BST more similar to the size of biological males

Answer 64

Twin studies suggest that genetics may play a role in the development of gender dysphoria ⚫ Heylens et al. (2012) compared 23 pairs of MZ twins and 21 pairs of DZ twins, where at least one twin was diagnosed with gender dysphoria ⚫ The concordance rate for MZ twins sharing GD was 39% whereas the concordance rate for DZ twins was 0%

Answer 65

⚫ This theory suggests that gender identity is not biological, but it is a concept invented (constructed) by societies ⚫ Because most societies consider gender to be male or female, people are forced to choose one ⚫ Therefore, the ‘confusion’ experienced by those with gender dysphoria is not a result of a pathological condition, but it’s a result of societal pressures forcing them to ‘pick a side’ ⚫ Gender dysphoria therefore shouldn’t be a diagnosable disorder, it is just a deviation from social norms

gender Flashcards

(89 cards)