Research Methods Flashcards
(117 cards)
1
Q
Define social desirability
A
When ppts change their answer in order to meet the desires of investigator . This may be because their answer is embarrassing or not desired by researcher
2
Q
define demand characteristics
A
When a ppt changes their behaviour/answers in order to be favoured by others (e.g. the researcher, ppts. Public)
3
Q
define extraneous variables
A
any variable that has the potential to affect the DV – they do not vary systematically with the IV
4
Q
define confounding variables
A
any variable that has affected the DV that does vary systematically with the IV
5
Q
define investigator effects
A
Anything that a researcher may say or do (consciously or subconsciously) that may influence the behaviour/responses from a ppt
6
Q
what is an example of participant extraneous variables (define )
A
-fatigue
-knowledge about task
-mood
an extraneous variable that already exists within the ppt
7
Q
what is an example of situational extraneous variables
A
a variable that exists due to to the setting
-the weather
-the time
8
Q
what are examples of investigator effects
A
-leading questions
-tone of voice
-speed of voice
time given to carry out task
9
Q
what are two solutions to demand characteristics
A
single -blind trial
double -blind trial
10
Q
what does single blind trial do and what does a double blind trial do
A
SBT-prevent demand characteristics and increases internal validity
DBT- prevents demand characteristics prevents investigator effect
11
Q
define randomisation (examples)
A
the use of chance in order to control for the effect of bias when disguising materials and deciding the order
-the order of words
-length of words
-order of difficulty
-order of conditions
-order of correct answes
12
Q
define standardisation
A
using exactly the same formalised procedure and instructions for all participants in a research study
-wundt during introspection used stardadristion
-prevents extraneous variable and confounding variables
13
Q
define counterbalancing
A
when ppt in a repeated measures design are split in half ,with half of the ppts completing conditions in reverse order to the other half of the ppts.
14
Q
explain how to use counterbalancing
A
-split ppts into two groups
-get the first group to complete conditions in one order
-get the second group to complete conditions in opposite order
-put the data together and compare each condition
15
Q
strength and weaknesses of field experiment
A
strength -observes natural behaviour - therefore has high ecological validity.
weakness- ethical issues surrounding it breach in privacy
weakness- cannot be controlled and remove extraneous variables
16
Q
strengths and weakness of labratory experiment
A
stength - high degree of control can remove exraneous variables
strength -can be replicated
weakness-low ecological validity since it doesnt observe natural behaviour
17
Q
weakness and strength for quasi experiment
A
strength- controlled meaning high internal validity
weakness-cannot randomly allocate participants into different groups meaning there are some confounding variables and harder to conclude that the IV had an effect on the DV.
18
Q
weakness and strength for the natural experiment
A
Strength -high external validity
Weakness -since they are rare occuring events ,it is hard to replicate the study
hard to randomise , meaning there can be confounding variables and extraneous variables
19
Q
what is structured observation (include pros and cons )
A
when researcher quantifies what they are observing by making a pre determined list
pro : easier because more systemtic
quantative data is collected which is easier to analyse and compare with other data
con : -less risk of reasercher bias
20
Q
what is unstructured observation
A
contains continuous data where the researcher writes everything they see during the observation
pro :more detail
con: researcher bias can be an issue
21
Q
what is behaviour categories
A
when target behaviour is broken up into precise components which are observable and measurable. e.g aggressive behaviour.
22
Q
What is sampling
A
refers to how often data is recorded
23
Q
What are two types of sampling in observational designs
A
Time sampling
Event sampling
24
Q
What is event sampling
A
counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in the target individual / group
25
What is time sampling
recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
26
What is inter observer reliability
This is when two or more observers make consistent judgements about the data they record
27
How can you check the reliability of the observers results
⚫ Carry out a pilot study using the behavioural categories
⚫ Collect observed data from both observers
⚫ Check for a correlation between the two sets of data
⚫ If there is a strong positive correlation between the observers, then the observation has high inter-observer reliability
28
What type of data would structured observation produce
Quantitative
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What type of data does unstructured observations give you
Qualitative
30
One weakness of unstructured observation
Lead to observer bias
31
What are the strengths and weaknesses of behavioural categories
+ they give observations more structure, leaving them less open to interpretation
Weaknesses
- overlapping categories
Dustbin categories
Missed categories
32
What are the strengths and weaknesses of time sampling
⚫ + less observations need to be made (a strength because?)
⚫ - we may miss important events during the intervals
33
What are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling
+ useful when the target behaviour is infrequent
Weaknesses
⚫ - we may overlook other important behaviours if we are too focused on one
34
What is a pilot study
A small-scale trial run of the investigation.
35
What are the benefits of pilot study
Gives us an opportunity to improve the study
⚫ To ensure that the study runs smoothly
⚫ Saves us time, money and effort
36
Non experimental methods
Observations
Self report
Correlation
37
Describe different types of observation
⚫ Naturalistic or controlled
⚫ Overt or covert
⚫ Participant or non-participant
38
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a naturalistic experiment
High external validity (ecological)
Natural environment more natural behaviour
⚫ - lack of control over the situation
⚫ Difficult to replicate – (why is this a problem?) ⚫ Extraneous variables – (why is this a problem?)
39
Strengths and weaknesses of covert
No participant reactivity (which is a good thing because?) ⚫ Higher internal validity
⚫ - Major ethical issues (such as?)
⚫ Watching someone without their permission can be
perceived as spying
⚫ Some matters may be private business
40
Strengths and weaknesses for participant observation
+ increased insight on the participant’s experiences
⚫ May gain valuable information by being ‘on the inside’
⚫ This may increase the validity of the findings
⚫ - risk of subjectivity
⚫ Participants may identify too strongly with pps and may
lose objectivity – researcher bias
Non-participant observat
41
Define overt
Overt: Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge or consent
42
Define covert
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
43
What are three experimental designs
Matched pairs
Independent groups
Repeated measures
44
Describe independent groups
Ppts are allocated to different groups where each group represents one condition
⚫ When having more than one group, we usually have an experimental condition and a control condition
45
Describe repeated measures
All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment
⚫ With this design, we still have an experimental and
control condition
⚫ However, ppts will take part in all conditions
We usually use this method to test before and after
46
What are the strengths and weaknesses for independent groups design
They are much less likely to guess the aim of the study
-high internal validity
Weaknesses
⚫ Individual differences/participant variable
47
What are the strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures
Strengths
we do not need to worry about individual differences – we are testing the same people twice
Weaknesses
⚫ Order effects – having to do the same task more than once can affect the performance
48
What are the causes of order effects
Fatigue effect
Practice effect
49
Describe matched pairs design
When pairs of ppts are matched on a key variable(s) and
are split into two different conditions
50
Outline how a matched pairs design would be carried out
Choose a variable to match ppts on that should be controlled for in your study (e.g. spelling
2. Give ppts an assessment/test on that variable prior to the experiment (e.g. a spelling test out of 20)
3. Pair ppts who have the closest scores together (those with scores of 18 and 19 pair together, scores of 2 and 3 are paired together, etc.)
4. Split each pair into groups A and B (so there is one person from each matched pair in each group)
51
What are the strengths and weaknesses for matched pair design
Strength:
Removes order effects
Removes individual differences
Weaknesses:
It may take a lot of time and effort to match participants based on a particular attribute
52
What are the types of sampling
Random
Stratified
Opportunity
Volunteer
Systematic
53
What is stratified sampling
The proportions of people in population sub-groups (strata) are reflected in the sample
54
What is systematic sampling
Every nth person is chosen from a list
55
What is volunteer sampling
Participants 'self-select
56
What is opportunity sampling
Whoever is available at the time of
sampling will be included
57
What is random sampling
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
58
Explain stratified sampling using example
A stratified sample is intended to represent the proportions of a particular variable within the target population – we call this variable strata
⚫ E.g. SMMA 6th form – Strata: internal (SMMA secondary) and external students
⚫ 60% internal, 40% external
⚫ If I want a stratified sample of 20 students from the 6th form,
how many internals and externals should I have?
⚫ 60% of 20 = 12 40% of 20 = 8
⚫ 12 internals, 8 externals
59
What is a self report technique
Any method by which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or expectations related to a given topic
60
What are two self report techniques
Interviews
Questionnaires
61
Questionnaires can either be
Open questions
Closed questions
62
Interviews can either be
Structures
Semi structures
Unstructured
63
Questionnaires
A written set of questions (or items) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences
64
Open questions define
questions that do not have a fixed range of responses – people are free to answer as they wish
65
Closed question define
questions that have a fixed range of responses
66
What are the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires
Time and cost effective – can be distributed in large volumes (post/online) – researcher doesn’t even need to be present
⚫ - Limitations: demand characteristics or social desirability bias
Response bias – people may just respond similarly for each question
67
Outline three ways a questionnaire can include closed questions
⚫ Likert scales: indicate how far they agree
⚫ Rating scales: indicate how strongly the respondent feels about a statement/topic
⚫ Fixed choice option
68
Outline what structured interviews are
when questions are pre-determined and in a fixed order.
69
Define unstructured interviews
Unstructured: when there are no set questions and a topic is discussed generally (free flowing)
70
What are the strengths and weaknesses of structured interviews
+ easy to replicate (why?), less room for bias
- Unable to deviate from the questions or expand on answers
71
What are the strengths and weaknesses of unstructured interview
lots of flexibility – can elaborate and gather more detail
⚫ - much more difficult to analyse – may be lots of irrelevant data
72
What is reliability
Refers to how consistent the findings or measuring device are.
A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used
73
What is test -retest
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person/group on two separate occasions
If the measure produces the same answers the second time around it is considered as reliable
74
Outline how to carry out test-retest
Give ppts the test/questionnaire and collect the data
2. Give the same ppts the same test/questionnaire on a later
occasion (e.g. a week later) and collect the data
3. Compare the data collected from each ppt on both occasions
4. Look for a correlation between the scores. If the correlation is ≥0.8, the test/questionnaire has high test-retest reliability
75
Define inter observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more researchers involved in observing/measuring behaviour.
76
What are the steps of using inter observer reliability
1. Run a pilot study and have each researcher measuring/observing the same thing (e.g. behavioural categories)
2. Collect the data from each researcher and compare
3. Check for a correlation between the sets of data
4. If there is a correlation of ≥0.80 there is high inter-rater reliability
77
How can you improve the reliability of questionnaires ,observations,experiments and interviews
Questionnaires : Remove/re-write questions – closed instead of open
Interviews :Training – no leading qs, structured interviews
Experiments :Control over variables (lab experiments) – more replication
Observations :Operationalised behavioural categories
78
What is validity
Refers to how accurate the findings or measuring device are
79
Define external validity
The extent to which the findings from a study are accurate outside of the study
80
Three types of external validity
Ecological
Historical
Population
81
What is face validity
The extent to which a measure looks like what it claims to measure
⚫ If the item looks like it measures what it claims to measure, then we can say it has face validity
82
What is concurrent validity
Establishing validity by comparing your measure to an existing measure
⚫ used To assess validity
83
How can we improve validity in experiments
⚫ Internal: better experimental design (e.g. matched pairs
instead of repeated measures) – lab setting-high control
⚫ External: field instead of lab method, representative sample (stratified sampling)
84
How can we improve the validity in questionnaires
Questionnaires
⚫ Face validity – change the questions to make them more
relevant
⚫ Concurrent validity – remove the questions
85
what is a case study
An in-depth, detailed investigation of one individual or a small group
86
what are the strength of using case studies
Case studies are usually very in-depth
It can improve our knowledge and understanding of human behaviour
Theoretical value
Richer detail, can explore more sensitive topics, can focus on one individual – not big groups – more accurate data
practical value
Case studies can provide direction for new hypotheses for experiments, observations, etc. –
87
what are the weaknesses of using case studies
1.methodology issues leads to generalisability problem
Small sample size – usually just one person
Can’t generalise – low population validity/generalisability
We must rely on self-report – social desirability/poor memory
Inaccurate data – low internal validity
2. biased data
Researchers have the power to investigate areas they are interested in – may look for the answers they want
They can interpret qualitative data themselves to fit their aims
88
what is correlation
a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables
89
how would you write a hypothesis for an experiment
All conditions of the IV and DV
The IV and DV operationalised
Statement about the difference
90
how would you write a hypothesis for correlation
Both co-variables, operationalised
Statement about the relationship:
‘there will be a correlation between…’
‘there will be a positive/negative correlation between…’
91
what is a correlation co-efficient
A calculated statistical value between -1 and +1 that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables
The value is positive or negative tells us whether the correlation is positive or negative
E.g. a value of 0.7 tells us the relationship is positive
A value of -0.7 tells us the relationship is negative
92
what is considered a weak correlation ,moderate and strong correlation
± 0.1 – 0.3 = weak correlation
± 0.4 – 0.6 = moderate correlatio
± 0.7 – 1 = strong correlation
93
Why is using a correlation good
Preliminary tool
⚫ It gives us a quantifiable measure of how two variables are related – possibly showing interesting/unexpected patterns
Time a
⚫ A researcher may use this information before committing to an experimental method.
Time and cost effectivenes
94
What is the limitation of using correlation
A correlation can only tell us whether there is a relationship
between two variables
⚫ How can we be sure that watch
⚫ A correlation cannot establis cause and effect.
However, there may be a third variable responsible for this association
95
What is primary data
Primary data: data that is obtained first-hand by the researcher, for the purposes of a research project. E.g. experimental data.
96
What is secondary data
Secondary data: data that has been collected by someone else, and so pre-dates the current research project.
97
What is meta analysis
Meta-analysis: ‘research about research’. Combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view.
98
What are the five features of science
Theoryconstruction
Hypothesis testing
Empiricism
Objectivity
Replicability
99
What is theory construction
A set of general laws and principles that have the ability to explain
particular events or behaviours
⚫ Theory construction occurs by gathering evidence via direct observation
⚫ Psychological theories provide understanding by explaining regularities in behaviour
100
What are two models on how theories develop
Inductive (hypothesis testing leading to theory)
⚫ Deductive (theory leading to hypothesis testing
101
Outline hypothesis testing
This is when the validity of a theory is tested – theories are then modified using findings
⚫ A good theory must be able to generate testable expectations
102
What is empiricism
When information is gathered via direct observation and experiment, rather than unfounded beliefs
103
What is objectiveityb
When all sources of personal bias are minimised to not distort or influence the research process
104
What is falsifiability
The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being untrue
105
What is a paradigm
A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
a paradigm separates scientific discipline from non-scientific discipline
106
What is a paradigm shift
The result of a scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline
107
How does a paradigm shift occur
1.A handful of researchers may begin to question the accepted paradigm
2. Critique begins to gather popularity and pace
3. Eventually there is too much contradictory evidence to
ignore and a paradigm shift occurs
108
Outline psychology in the economy
How does what we learn from findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue the economy?
⚫ Economy: government, law, healthcare (nhs), education, etc.
109
Examples of how psychological research has had a good impact on economy
treating mental illness
⚫ Absence from work costs the economy ̴15billion a year
⚫ Reports show that a third of those absences are due to ‘mild’
mental illnesses, such as depression, stress and anxiety
110
What are two types of hypothesis
Directional
Non directional
111
What is the difference between directional hypothesis and non directional
When the direction of the difference/relation has been stated
When the direction of the difference/relation has not been stated
112
What is operationalisation
This means making sure our variables are clearly defined, specific and measurable.
113
What must a hypothesis include
⚫ Whether there will be a difference/relationship
⚫ ALL conditions of both the IV and the DV
⚫ IV and DV must be operationalised
114
What is content analysis
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce for example emails ,texts ,TV
115
What is coding
The stage of content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by indentifying each instance of chosen categories.
E.g counting the number of times a certain word or phrase
116
What is the strength of content analysis
Less ethical issues involved
Produces both qualitative and quantitative data
117
What is one weakness of content analysis
The content is studied outside of the context it occurred
Danger that reader may attribute opinions and motivations to writer
