Gender Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
What is a persons sex?
A
Refers to a persons biological status as either male or female
Determined by different chromosomes which influence hormonal differences and differences in anatomy
Sex is genetic
2
Q
What is gender?
A
Refers to a persons psychological status
Includes attitudes, roles and behaviours associated with being male or female
Heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations
Partially environmentally determined
3
Q
What is gender dysphoria?
A
Biologically prescribed sex doesn’t reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identity themselves as being
Someone who experiences this may choose to have gender reassignment surgery to bring their sexual identity in line with their gender identity
4
Q
What are sex-role stereotypes?
A
Shared set of expectations that people within a society or culture hold about what is acceptable/ usual behaviour for males and females
Expectation are communicated through society
May lead to sexiest assumptions being formed
5
Q
What are the strengths/discussion points about second gender?
A
Urberg (1982)
-told children aged 3-7 stories that stressed sex-role stereotypical characteristics e.g bravery or caring
- gender of the child not specified in the story
- after each story children had to state wether characteristics illustrated were typical of boys, girls or neither
- responses favoured sex-role stereotypes
- older children showed increased tendency to see characteristics as both male and female - implying sex-role stereotypes can change with age
Environmental experience explains cultural differences:
- the fact that sex-role stereotypes can differ substantially cross-culturally suggests that the characteristics associated with sex roles are culturally transmitted
- this implies environmental learning experiences are stronger than biological forces in determining sex-role stereotypes
- it also suggests negative sex-role stereotyping could be addressed by providing learning experiences for children reinforcing positive sex-roles that apply to males and females
6
Q
What are the weaknesses/ discussion points about sex and gender?
A
Media criticism:
- media are subjected to criticism of their stereotypical presentation of sex-roles, due to this portrayals have become less stereotyped
- however some argue such portrayals are still stereotypes
- they therefore continue to exert harmful effects
- particularly in their presentation of negative female sex-role stereotypes
Categorising behaviours may placate restrictive barriers on society:
-Categorising behaviours, occupations, qualities etc as either masculine or feminine may place restrictive barriers on positive roles that males and females could play in society
- e.g females making contributions as scientists or males working in the nurturing of children (nursery teachers)
7
Q
What is androgyny?
A
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine traits in one’s personality
8
Q
How is androgyny measured?
A
The Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)
9
Q
What is androgyny associated with?
A
Psychological well-being
10
Q
Why is androgyny associated with psychological well-being?
A
Individuals who are both masculine and feminine in roughly equal measures are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations and contexts
11
Q
What are the elements in Bem’s sex role inventory?
A
- 20 characteristics commonly judged as masculine
- 20 characteristics commonly judged as femenine
- 20 neutral traits
- 7 point rating scale
- scores classifies as ‘masculine’, ‘feminine’ , ‘androgynous’ and ‘undifferentiated’
12
Q
What are the strengths of androgyny?
A
Valid and reliable research:
- developed by 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for men and women
- 20 highest scoring traits included for feminine and masculine
- piloted with over 1000 students
- follow up studies involving a smaller sample of the same students showed similar results when tested one month later
- scale as high test-retest reliability
Flaherty and Dusek (1980)
- found that androgynous individuals have a higher degree of self-esteem, a better sense of emotional well-being and more adaptable behaviour
- this backs up the idea of psychological androgyny indicating psychological well-being
-however androgynous individual can exhibit negative masculine traits (aggressiveness) and feminine characteristics (too timid) on certain situations.
13
Q
What are the weaknesses of androgyny?
A
Culture bias:
- BSRI was created from data generated by American students in the 1970s about what they perceived as desirable characteristics in men and women
- the test may lack external validity in terms of being relevant today and to people from other cultures
- western notions of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’ may not be shared across all cultures and society
Problems using questionnaires:
- asking people to rate themselves on questionnaire realises on them having an understanding of their personality and behaviour
- gender is a hypothetical construct - open to interpretation
- scoring system is subjective - peoples interpretation of ‘7’ may differ
- social desirability and response bias need to also be considered
14
Q
What chromosomes do males have?
A
XY
15
Q
What chromosomes do females have?
A
XX
16
Q
Which pair of chromosomes determines biological sex?
A
23rd pair
17
Q
How does the sperm determine sex?
A
Half the sperm carry an X chromosome and half Y
The baby will be a girl if the fertilising sperm carries an X chromosome, the baby will be a boy if the sperm carries a Y chromosome
18
Q
What are male sex hormones called?
A
Androgens
19
Q
What does the sex-determining region lead to in embryo development?
A
Testes to develop in an XY chromosome
20
Q
Where is the sex-determining region Y located?
A
On the Y chromosome
21
Q
What do androgens do?
A
Cause the embryo to become male
22
Q
Why are secondary sexual characteristics developed?
A
Due to a burst of hormonal activity
23
Q
How much testosterone is found in females?
A
About 10% of the amount found in males
24
Q
Where is testosterone produced in males?
A
Gonads (testes)
25
What is the influence of testosterone on sexual differentiation?
Involves the development of external genitalia in early pregnancy
26
Which part of the brain does testosterone act on?
Hypothalamus
27
What type of behaviour is testosterone associated with?
Competitiveness and aggressiveness
28
What effects can oestrogen have during menstruation?
PMT - premenstrual tension
Emotionality
Irritability
Irrational behaviour
Anti-social behaviour
29
What does diminishing levels of oestrogen cause?
Menopause
30
How can oestrogen feminise the brain?
Promotes neural interconnections for a more ‘distributed’ female brain (equal to both hemispheres)
31
What ‘female’ behaviours are associated with oestrogen?
Sensitivity
Cooperation
32
Why does oxytocin have a greater effect in females?
It combines with oestrogen to enhance each other’s effect
33
What hormone is released in massive quantities during labour?
Oxytocin - causes the contraction of the uterus
34
What effect does oxytocin have after childbirth?
Make mothers feel ‘in love’ with their baby
Stimulates lactation
35
When is oxytocin produced equally by both sexes?
Kissing
Sexual intercourse
36
When does oxytocin drop in males?
Immediately after orgasm - explaining their sudden loss in intimacy
37
38
What are the strengths of the influence of chromosomes and hormones on gender development?
Evidence: David Reimer:
- born male but brought up female, however when he was told that he was biologically male he decided to become male
- this shows the importance of nature (chromosomes) over nurture in determining gender
Van Goozen et al (1995):
- studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex
- transgender women (male to female) showed decrease in aggression and visuospatial skills
- transgender men showed the opposite
- suggests sex hormones do exert some influence on gender-related behaviours
39
What are the weaknesses of chromosomes and hormones on gender development?
Animal research:
- much of the research on the role of hormones in sex and gender is conducted on animals
- the extent to which results can be generalised is debatable to different physiology
- human development is also more subject to social and cultural influences
Oversimplifies a complex concept:
- biological accounts that reduce behaviour to the level of chromosomes and hormones have been ignoring alternative explanations of gender development
- cognitive approach - changing thought processes underpinning gender development are not explained by the biological model
- psychodynamic approach - would point to the importance of childhood experiences e.g interactions within the family
40
41
What chromosomes does someone with Kleinfelter’s syndrome have?
XXY - extra X chromosome
42
What causes the XXY chromosomes in Kleinfelter’s syndrome?
Nondisjunction mutation in meiosis
43
What are sufferers of Kleinfelter’s syndrome treated with?
Testosterone supplements
44
What are some of the physical characteristics of a man with Kleinfelter’s syndrome?
- reduced body hair
- long limbs
- underdeveloped genitals
- breast tissue
- low muscularity
- low fertility
- coordination problems
45
What are some of the psychological characteristics of a man with Kleinfelter’s syndrome?
- often linked to poorly developed language skills and reading ability
- shy
- lack of interest in sexual activity
- increased risk of anxiety and depression
- may often exhibits problems with memory, problem solving and attention
46
Sufferers of Kleinfelter’s syndrome are biologically ______?
Male
47
Who is effected by Turner’s syndrome?
Biological females
48
How many females are effected by Turner’s syndrome?
Around 1 in 5000
49
What is Turner’s syndrome caused by?
An absence of one of the X chromosomes
50
How many chromsomes do people with Turner’s syndrome have?
45
51
How is Turner’s syndrome treated?
Growth hormones
Oestrogen and progesterone supplements
52
What are the some of the physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?
- lymphoedema in hands and feet
- short stature
- webbed neck
- slanted eyes
- low set ears
- broad chest
- lots of moles
- organ abnormalities
- vision and hearing problems
- ovaries fail to develop
- no menstrual cycle
- don’t develop breasts
- high waist to hip ratio
53
What are some of the psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?
- higher than average reading ability
- lower performance on spatial, visual, memory and mathematical tasks
- socially immature
- trouble relating to peers
- experience difficulty ‘fitting in’ due to physical appearance
54
What are the strengths of atypical sex chromosome patterns?
Contribution to the nature-nurture debate in gender development:
- by comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome-typical individuals we can see biological and behavioural differences
- we can see what aspects of biological development are under the influence of chromosomes
- e.g people with TS tend to have higher verbal abilities
- it seems logical to infer these have a biological basis
- ‘nature’ influences seem to have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
Practical application:
- research into sex chromosome patterns can lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis
-e.g treating stunted growth in TS with growth hormones
- there may also be positive outcomes in the future for these individuals
- Herlihy et al (2011):
- studies 87 individuals with KS
- those treated from a young age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed and treats in adulthood
55
What are the weaknesses of atypical sex chromosome patterns?
Environmental explanations:
- nature may not only be responsible
- environmental and social influences may be more responsible for the behavioural differences seen
- higher criminality is seen is males with KS - this may be due to lack of maturity through not achieving fatherhood or having a long-term partner
- females with TS may suffer psychologically through not being able to have children
Socially sensitive:
- both KS and TS can be diagnosed prenatally
- this can be regarded ethically as a socially sensitive area
- such a diagnosis may incur a demand for or increase pressure upon prospective parents to ask for an abortion
56
Which psychosexual stage does gender develop in?
Phallic (3-6) years
57
What does Freud describe pre-phallic children as?
Bisexual (neither masculine of feminine)
58
What complex do boys experience during the phallic stage?
Oedipus complex
59
What complex do girls experience during the phallic stage?
Electra complex
60
What fear do boys have during the Oedipus complex?
Castration anxiety (father will castrate them)
61
What is the conflict boys experience during the Oedipus complex?
Lust for mother and fear of father
62
How do boys resolve their conflict during the Oedipus complex?
The boys give up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father
63
What do girls fear during the Electra complex?
Loosing their mother’s love
64
During the Electra complex, girls experience _______ envy
Penis
65
What conflict do girls experience during the Electra complex?
Between list for father and fear of losing mothers love
66
How do girls resolve their conflict during the Electra complex?
Identify with their mother and after realising she cant have a penis, she substitutes this desire with a desire for children
67
What is identification?
A desire to be associated with a particular person
E.g desire to be like same sex parent to resolve their conflict
68
What is internalisation?
Where an individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another
E.g taking on the gender identity of the same sex parent
69
What case study evidenced the Oedipus complex?
Little hans
70
Describe the little Hans case study.
- was 5 and had a fear of being bitten by a horse
- Freud said that his fear represented castration anxiety
- he suggested that Hans has transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement
71
What are the 4 weaknesses of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
Inadequate account of female development:
- his theory is mainly male-orientated (probably a product of the time period within it was constructed)
- wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex but admitted women were a mystery to him
- ‘Horney’ challenged the idea that female gender development was founded on the desire to be like men
- argued that penis envy was a cultural concept rather than an innate trait
Lack of scientific rigour:
- untestable concepts due to unconscious nature
- contrasts with other explanations e.g biological
- Popper (1959) - argued that this makes Freud’s theory is pseudoscientific as his key ideas cannot be falsified
Malinowski (1922):
- boys in Trobriand islands exhibited hostility (described in Oedipus complex) was directed at uncles (who were the main disciplinarian in their culture)
- opposes Freud’s theory as it suggests boy’s hostile relationships may be a rejection of discipline rather than sexual jealousy over their mother
Non-nuclear families:
- relies on children having parents of different genders
- it would be assumed that children raised in non-nuclear families would have an adverse effect on gender development
- Golombock (1983) demonstrated how children from single-parent families went on to develop gender identities that were in tie with their biological sex
72
according to Kohlberg's theory gender runs parallel to _____________ development
intellectual
73
what are the Kohlberg's 3 stages of gender development?
1) gender identity
2) gender stability
3) gender constancy
74
when is the gender identity stage?
around aged 2
75
what happens during the gender identity stage?
- can correctly identify themselves as girl or boy
- understanding of gender tends to not stretch past simple labelling
- not aware that sex is permanent
76
when is the gender stability stage?
around aged 4
77
what happens during the gender stability stage?
- understand they will always stay the same gender but cannot apply the same logic to others
- often confused by external changes in appearance
- may believe people change sex if they engage in activities more associated with the opposite gender
78
when is the gender constancy stage?
approximately 6 or 7 years old
79
what happens during the gender constancy stage?
- recognise gender remains constant and consistent across time and situations
- this understanding is applied to other people's gender as well
- no longer fooled by changes in outwards appearance
- begin to seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
80
what are the strengths of Kohlberg's theory of gender development?
Slaby and Frey (1975):
- children were presented with split-screen images of males and females performing the same tasks
- younger children spent roughly the same amount of time watching both sexes
- children in the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at the model who was the same sex as them
- suggests Kohlberg was correct - children who have acquired constancy will actively seek gender-appropriate models
Munroe at al (1984):
- found cross-cultural evidence of Kohlberg’s theory in Kenya, Samoa and Nepal
- suggests the sequence of stages Kohlberg put forward may be universal
81
What are the weaknesses of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development?
Methodological issues:
- theory was developed using interviews with children, sometimes as young as 2 or 3
- questions were tailored towards the particular age group but very young children lack the vocabulary to express their understanding
- these children may have relatively complex ideas about gender but don’t possess the verbal abilities to articulate these
- what they express may not truly represent their understanding
Concentrates on cognitive factors:
- overlooks important cultural and social factors, such as the influence of parents and friends
82
83
what does social learning theory assume about gender development?
States that all behaviour (including gender roles) is learned from observing and imitating others
84
Describe direct reinforcement in the SLT explanation of gender.
Children are more likely to be reinforced (praised) for demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate
85
What is differential reinforcement?
The way in which boys and girl are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour
86
According to SLT how does a child learn their gender identity?
Differential reinforcement
87
How does indirect (vicarious) reinforcement explain gender development?
If the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child
If the consequences are unfavourable the behaviour is less likely to be imitated
88
what is identification in the SLT explanation of gender development?
The process where a child attaches themself to a person who is seen to be ‘like me’ or because a person is like someone ‘I want to be’
89
What are the characteristics of a role model in SLT?
Attractive
High status
Same sex
90
What is modelling in the SLT explanation of gender development?
Precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
91
What is the mediational process?
- attention
- retention
- reproduction
- motivation
92
Describe the influence of parents on gender roles in the SLT explanation of gender development.
Parents give boys and girls different toys, speak to and handle them differently
Fathers seem to reinforce sex-types behaviour more than others - especially in sons
SLT perceives same-sex models are more influential
Children gradually take on parents gender schemas
93
Describe the influence of peers on gender roles according to the SLT explanation of gender development.
Peers as at role model
Children soon display preferences for same-gender playmates
Peers reinforce gender stereotypes (praise gender-appropriate behaviour)
May be intolerant of cross-gender behaviour
94
How does gender development take place after a child as developed their gender identity according to SLT?
Once children have internalised gender appropriate behaviours, they are no longer dependent on external rewards and punishments
They self-direct their behaviour to satisfy their internalised standards - feel pride when gender-role consistent behaviour is achieved
95
Describe the influence of media on gender roles according to SLT.
Both sexes are portrayed in gender-stereotypical ways
Media influences provide children with a constant source of information of gender behaviours to imitate
Those who ‘consume’ the most media develop stronger and more extreme perceptions of gender roles
96
Describe the influence of culture on gender roles in SLT.
Studying cultural influences allows psychologists to assess the extent to which gender is a biological or social construct
If gender was biological in nature, different cultural influences people experience will not influence gender
If cultural influences result in gender differences between cultures, this suggests gender is socially constructed
97
What are the strength of the SLT explanation of gender development?
Explains changing gender-roles in western society:
- there is now less of a clear-cut distinction between ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ in our society compared to the 1950s
- people’s basic biology hasn’t changed during this period
- such a shift is better explained by SLT- shift in social expectations and cultural norms
Cross cultural study of gender roles (Mead, 1935):
- studies tribal groups in Papua New Guinea
- in one tribe both males and females exhibited feminine, caring behaviours
- in another tribe, the men exhibited what would be seen as female behaviours and women exhibited male behaviour (according to western society)
- in another, both men and women exhibited masculine, aggressive personalities
- this indicates gender roles to be socially constructed, rather than biological
- however Mead’s work has been criticised for observer bias - not separating her own opinions from her descriptions of Samoan life and making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study
98
What are the weaknesses of the SLT explanation of gender development?
SLT cannot explain gender differences between same-sex siblings:
- two brothers may be raised by the same parents in the same way
- one may turn out more ‘masculine’ than the other
- this would suggest a more biological influence on gender development
Comparison with the biological approach:
- SLT places little emphasis on the influence of genes and hormones - only considers the role of the environment in gender development
- David Reimer showed how it was not possible to override chromosomal influence and raise a biological male as a girl
- modern researchers are more likely to accept the biosocial theory of gender - there are innate biological differences between boys and girls that are reinforces through social iterations and cultural expectations
99
who developed gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson
100
Schema theory is a ________-____________ theory.
Cognitive- developmental
101
At what age are gender schemas established?
2-3 years
102
Describe what happens when gender schemas are developed?
Once a child has established their gender identity they will search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schemas
They act as a magnet for new information
103
Describe a gender schema
Schemas provide a basis for interpreting the environment and selecting appropriate forms of behaviour
104
What are gender schemas likely to be formed around in young children?
Stereotypes
105
What happens at 6 years old according to gender schema theory?
The child has as fixe and stereotypical ideas about what is appropriate for its gender
Children are therefore likely on misremember or disregard information that doesn’t fit with their existing schema
106
What is an ‘in-group’ according to gender schema theory?
Children tend to have a much better understanding of the schemas that are appropriate to their own gender (in-group)
107
What is an ‘out-group’ according to gender schema theory?
Children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity rather than the opposite sex
108
What happens at 8 years old according to gender schema theory?
Children begin to develop elaborate schemas for both genders (not just their own)
109
In-group identities boost the child’s level of ____ _______ (gender schema identity)
Self - esteem
110
Describe what happens in late childhood/ early adolescence according to gender schema theory
Understand that ‘rules’ are just social conventions
Gender-role schemas are more flexible
Teenagers abandon the automatic assumption that what their gender does is preferable
111
What are the strengths of gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson (1983):
- found children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviour than gender-inconsistent behaviour
- they were tested on what they’d seen a week later
- children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent activity in the photographs when asked to recall them
- supports the idea that memory may be distorted to fit with existing gender schemas
Campell (2002):
- found that even the youngest infants between 3 and 18 months had a preference for watching same-sex babies
- by 9 months boys showed an increasing tendency to pay attention to ‘boys toys’
- shows young children pay more attention to their same-sex group
- supports the idea that gender schemas are formed early on
112
What are the weaknesses of gender schema theory?
Overemphasis on the role of the individual in gender development:
- importance of schemas and other cognitive factors in determining behaviour may be exaggerated
- like Kohlberg’s theory there may not be sufficient attention payed to the role of social factors e.g parental influences, rewards and punishments really explain why gender schemas develop
Reductionist:
- offers a plausible compromise between social learning and cognitive developmental theories but neglects biological factors
- assumes all gender-orientated behaviour is created through cognitive means
113
Why is gender dysphoria classified as a psychological disorder?
It can be a source of distress and discomfort
114
What is gender dysphoria?
When someone experiences a mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity
115
What are the 2 elements of the biological explanation of gender dysphoria?
Brain sex theory
Genetic factors
116
What is brain sex theory?
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) is involved in the emotional responses in male sexual behaviour in rats. This area is larger in men. It has found that people with gender dysphoria have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with (rather than their biological sex).
This fits with reports made by people who are transgender that they feel from early childhood that they were born the wrong sex
117
What are the genetic factors involved in gender dysphoria?
Gene-profiling studies have been performed to try and identify genetic material common to those exhibiting the condition.
Attention has centred on gene variants of the androgen receptor which influences the action of testosterone and is involved in the masculinisation of the brain
118
Describe the study of Heylens et al (2012) into genetic factors explaining gender dysphoria.
- compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins
- one of each pair was diagnosed with gender dysphoria
- found 39% of the MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to none of the DZ twins
- indicates a role for genetic factors in the development of gender dysphoria
119
What is the hormonal explanation for gender dysphoria?
- hormonal imbalances during foetal growth in the womb and later in childhood development can lead to gender dysphoria
- centuries around the release of male hormones during the 3rd month of pregnancy with an additional release between 2 and 12 weeks after brith
- male hormone surges must occur at the right time and in sufficient amounts for masculinisation to develop
120
What can lead to hormonal imbalances (gender dysphoria)?
- disorder in the mothers endocrine system
- maternal stress
121
What are the 3 social explanations for gender dysphoria?
Psychoanalytic theory
Operant conditioning
Social learning theory
122
Describe the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria.
- gender dysphoria in males may be caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established
- child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety (his identity fuses with his mothers)
- the child becomes the mother and adopts a female gender identity
123
Describe operant conditioning as an explanation for gender dysphoria
- individuals are reinforced (rewarded) for exhibiting cross-gender behaviour
- parents of individuals experiencing gender dysphoria may have reinforced the condition by encouraging and complimenting children for such behaviour
- children may also reinforce themselves - felt good about what they were doing
124
How does social learning theory explain gender dysphoria?
- observation and imitation of individuals modelling cross-gender behaviour
- individuals may lack stereotypically male/female role models
125
What is the social-psychological explanation for gender dysphoria?
Cognitive explanation
126
Describe the cognitive explanation for gender dysphoria.
Dual pathway theory:
- first pathway - acknowledges the development of gender schema which directs gender appropriate attitude is and behaviour
Second personal pathway- describes how a child’s gender attitudes are affected by their activity
- individuals personal interests may become more dominant than the gender identity
- these in turn influence the gender schema
- e.g boy who finds himself playing with dolls may come to believe playing with dolls is for boys and girls
- events like this leads to development of non sex-typed schema
127
What is the strength of gender dysphoria?
Research support for genetic explanation
• Heylens et al (2012)
• Compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins
• Each pair was diagnosed with GID
• Found 39% of the MZ twins were concordant for GID
compared to none of the DZ twins
• Indicates a genetic factor in the development of GID
• However 39% is quite a low concordance rate
• Also difficult to separate nature and nurture in these investigations
• Sample sizes in these studies usually quite low as GID occurs quite rarely
(limits generalisation)
128
What are the weaknesses of gender dysphoria?
Socially sensitive:
- classifying gender dysphoria as a disorder may remove feelings that is it ‘their fault’
- however, labels risk stigmatising those who are subject to it characterising them as ‘ill’ rather than merely different
- over time as concepts of gender become more fluid, there may be less need to talk about ‘typical’ and ‘atypical’ gender identity
Biologically reductionist:
- evidence suggests the influence of hormones and genetics as the main cause of gender dysphoria
- however, there is little evidence to suggest a totally biological explanation
- an interactionist combination of several levels of explanation may be relevant in explaining gender dysphoria
Issues with psychoanalytic theory:
- does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in females
- Rekers (1986) conduced research which suggests gender dysphoria is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father rather than the fear of separation from the mother
- the assumption that it is caused by separation anxiety in childhood is very difficult to test
Issues with cognitive theory:
- the theory is descriptive rather than explanatory
- little explanation of why a child might become interested in activities that are not consistent with their own sex
- little explanation of how such activities bring about the development of non sex-typed schema
- no information about causes
129
