Research Methods Flashcards
(244 cards)
1
Q
How is quantitative data represented?
A
Numericallly
2
Q
What is an advantage and disadvantage of quantitive data?
A
Advantage: patterns and comparisons within data can be easily drawn.
Objective, less open to bias.
Easily converted into graphs
Disadvantage: narrow scope in meaning
Participants cannot develop their thoughts, feelings etc
May fail to represent ‘real life’
3
Q
How is qualitative data expressed?
A
Words- written description of the thoughts and feelings of the participant
4
Q
Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative data?
A
Advantage: provides the researcher with a meaningful insight into the participant’s point of view.
Rich in detail.
Participants can develop their thoughts, feelings etc
Disadvantage: conclusions often rely on subjective interpretations of the researcher (could be bias).
Hard to identify patterns in data.
Cannot be summarised statistically.
5
Q
What is primary data?
A
Original data that has been specifically collected for the purpose of the investigation e.g carrying out a questionnaire.
6
Q
What can primary data also be referred to as?
A
Field work
7
Q
What is am advantage and disadvantage of primary data collection?
A
Advantage: can specifically target the information required by the researcher.
Authentic data for the purpose of a particular investigation.
Disadvantage: requires time and effort.
Requires planning, preparation and resources.
8
Q
What is secondary data (+ an example)?
A
Data that already exists before the research is conducted e.g. government records or a journal article.
9
Q
What is secondary data also referred to as?
A
Field research
10
Q
What is an advantage and disadvantage of secondary data?
A
Advantage: inexpensive, minimal effort, easily accessed.
May find their desired information already exists so there is no need t conduct primary data collection.
Disadvantage: variation in quality and accuracy.
Data may be incorrect/ incomplete.
Data may not match the needs of the researcher.
11
Q
What is meta-analysis?
A
Uses secondary data from a large number of studies to provide a statistical measure of the difference/ relationships between variables across a number of studies.
12
Q
What is an advantage and disadvantage of meta-analysis?
A
Advantage: view data with confidence and results can be generalised across larger populations.
Disadvantage: can be prone to bias; the researcher may not select all relevant studies.
13
Q
What is a paradigm?
A
A shared set of assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline e.g. a widly accepted theory.
14
Q
What is a paradigm shift?
A
When new research may challenge a paradigm (a scientific revolution)
15
Q
How to you write an aim?
A
To investigate… (purpose of the study)
16
Q
What are the three levels of measurement?
A
Nominal data
Ordinal data
Interval data
17
Q
What is nominal data?
A
Data that is represented in the form of categories
Can find a mode
18
Q
What is ordinal data?
A
Can put it in an order but it isn’t standardised (no equal intervals). E.g a scale rating of 1-10
Can calculate a median
19
Q
What is interval data?
A
A numerical scale that includes equal units e.g. time, temperature etc
Can calculate a mean
20
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A clear precise testable statement that states the relationship between variables (written in the present or future).
21
Q
What are the two types of experimental/ alternative hypothesis?
A
Non-directional
Directional
22
Q
What is non-directional hypothesis?
A
You don’t know which direction it is going.
You know there will be a difference in variables but is is not specific.
23
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
The sort of difference in variables is clear.
24
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
There is no significant difference/effect in/of variable.
25
What is the independent variable?
An aspect that is manipulated or changed e.g. having an energy drink or not.
26
What is the dependent variable?
Something that is measured by the researcher (what is being recorded).
27
What is operationalisation of variables?
Clearly defining and clearly explaining how you will measure the dependent variable
28
What is a hypothesis?
A prediction of the outcome of an investigation
29
How do you operationalise a hypothesis?
Clearly define your variables in terms of how they will be measured
30
What do you include in an operationalised hypothesis?
Operationalised DV
Conditions of both IV’s
31
What is an extraneous variable?
Anything other than the IV that may effect the DV, which must be controlled
32
What are the two types of extraneous variable?
Participant variables
Situational variables
33
What is a participant variable?
Any individual differences between participant variables and situational variables
34
What is a situational variable?
A feature of the experimental situation that may effect the DV.
35
What is an example of a participant variable?
Age, personality etc
36
What is an example of a situational variable?
Weather, temperature, time of day
37
What is a confounding variable?
An extraneous variable that have systematically changed with the IV
E.g a group who drink an energy drink may be more extroverted meaning they may always say more words, not just because of the caffeine
38
What is a demand characteristic?
Cues picked up by the participants so they find out the aim of the study
They may use the ‘I please you’ or the ‘screw you effect’ as a change of behaviour.
39
What is the investigator effect?
Conscious or unconscious cues from the investigator that reveal the investigation aim e.g body language
40
What is randomisation?
The use of chance wherever possible to control for the effect of bias (when designing materials and allocating participant conditions)
41
What is standardisation?
as possible all participants should be subject to the same environment, information and experience
Standardised instructions read to each participant
42
What is an extraneous variable?
These need to be identified before the study and minimised e.g lighting, temperature
43
What are order effects?
when participants' responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed.
Participants e.g in a repeated measure experiment may get the fatigue effect the second time performing the experiment (if it is running).
44
What is counterbalancing?
An attempt to minimise the effects of order effects in a repeated measures design. (ABBA effect).
E.g participants split into two, one group does task A then B. The other group does task B then A.
45
What is random allocation?
Participants randomly allocated to conditions using random techniques to address the problem of participant variables in the two conditions.
E.g. pick names alternately to choose which group participants go in.
46
What is experimental design?
The way in which participants are used in experiments.
How participants are assigned to different conditions.
47
What are the three elements of experimental design?
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
48
What is independent groups design?
Participants take part in only one condition. E.g one group drinks water and the other group drinks caffeine. Results are compared.
49
What are the strengths of Independent groups design?
No order effects.
Participants less likely to guess aim.
Only one test needed.
50
What are the weaknesses of independent groups designs?
Participant variables.
Less economical.
51
What is the matched pairs design?
There are two separate groups of participants
They are paired on key characteristics e.g. matched on IQ
Tries to control participant variables
52
What are strengths of matched pairs design?
No order effects.
Less demand characteristics.
53
What are weaknesses of matched pairs design?
Matching participant variables cannot be exact.
Matching is time consuming and expensive.
54
What is repeated measure design?
Participants experience both conditions
E.g. one group of participants drink Speedupp then some time later the same group would drink water (being observed after each)
The results would then be compared
55
What are the strengths of repeated measure design?
Participant variables not an issue as same participants in both conditions
Less participants needed so more economical
56
What are weaknesses of repeated measure design?
Order effects (Practice effect and fatigue effect) are a problem – counterbalancing tries to overcome this
Demand characteristics may be a problem as participants guess the aim
More than one test is needed
57
What are the 4 types of experiment?
Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi
58
What are the features of a laboratory experiment?
-highly controlled environment (not always in a lab)
- experimenter manipulates the IV
59
What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?
- high control over extraneous variables
- confidence in cause and effect
- replication is possible
60
What are weaknesses of laboratory experiments?
- lack of generalisability to other settings (lacks external validity)
- low ecological validity (relevant to a population)
61
What are the characteristics of field experiments?
- more natural setting than lab experiments
- experimenter manipulates IV
- could be a real life set up scenario e.g in a shopping centre
62
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- higher mundane realism
- may produce more valid and authentic behaviour
- external validity (as participants are unaware they are being studied)
63
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
- less control over extraneous variables
- cause and effect between IV and DV are more difficult to establish
- precise replication not possible
- ethical issues - not consented to participate
- possible invasion of privacy
64
What are the characteristics of natural experiments?
- situational
- researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable
- setting is not necessarily natural- may take place in a lab
65
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
- provides more opportunity for research
- high external validity as they study real-life problems and issues e.g the effects of natural disaster on stress levels
66
what are the weaknesses of natural experiments?
- a naturally occurs event will rarely occur - reducing the opportunities for research
- limited generalisation
- participants may not have been randomly allocated to groups (less sure if IV has effected DV)
67
What are the characteristics of a Quasi experiment?
- IV is based on existing difference between people e.g gender, age
- no one has manipulated the variable, it simply exists
68
What are the strengths of a Quasi experiment?
- often carried out under controlled conditions therefore share the same strengths of a lab experiment
69
What are the weaknesses of a Quasi experiment?
- cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions
- may be confounding variables
70
What is a single-blind procedure?
Participants will not be told the aim of the study to control the effects of demand characteristics.
71
What is a double-blind procedure?
A third party is brought in who doesn’t know the aim to conduct the study. Participants also do not know the aim of the study.
72
What are two types of control groups and conditions?
Experiential condition
Control condition
73
What is the experimental condition?
This group receives the ‘drug’ in a double blind trial (something happens to this group)
74
What is the control condition?
This group receives the placebo to allow comparison
75
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trail that is run before the actual investigation that takes place before the investigation.
This allows the researcher to identify potential issues and modify the design procedure to save time and money in the long run.
76
What is a population/ Target population?
A large group of individuals that a particular researcher may be interested in.
A subject of the general population which your sample will be drawn from and who you can generalise your result to.
77
What is a sample?
A selection of participants taken from the target population being studies and ingested to be representative of that population.
78
Why do investigators use a sample?
Allows generalisation of findings to be possible.
Try and produce a representative sample.
79
What is random sampling?
-All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
- a complete lost of all the members of target population is first obtained.
- all the names must be assigned a number.
- a computer-based number generator or randomiser is then used.
- OR picking names/number out of a hat
80
what are the strengths of random sampling?
- free from researcher bias (no influence over who is chosen, not just choosing those to support their hypothesis.
81
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
- difficult and time consuming
- list of target population may be difficult to obtain
- selected participants may refuse to take part
82
What is systematic sampling?
- a sampling frame is produced (list of people in target population organised e.g. into alphabetical order)
- every nth person is selected (this interval is determined randomly to avoid bias e.g every 5th person on a school register)
83
What is are the strengths of systematic sampling?
- free from researcher bias
- usually fairly representative (e.g. unusual to get an all male sample)
84
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
- a complete list of target population may be difficult to obtain
- selected participants may refuse to take part
- still possible to get an unrepresentative sample
85
What is stratified sampling?
- the composition reflects the populations of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population.
- 1st identify the different strata that make up the population e.g. gander
- proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out (e.g. 70% male, 30% female)
- participants that make up each stratum are selected through random sampling
86
what are the strengths of stratified sampling?
- free from researcher bias
- produces a representative sample
- generalisation of findings possible
87
what are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
- difficult and time consuming
- selected participants may refuse to take part
- identified strata cannot reflect all ways people are different (complete representation of target population not possible)
88
what is opportunity sampling?
- uses anyone who is available and willing at the time
- researcher asks whoever is around at the time of their study
89
what are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
- convenient (saves the researcher time and effort)
- less costly than other sampling techniques
90
what are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
- suffers from bias
- unrepresentative of the target population as its drawn from a very specific area, so findings cannot be generalised (e.g. if it takes part in a school)
- researcher has complete control over the selection of participants (researcher bias) e.g. they may avoid certain participants
91
What is volunteer sampling?
- participants self-select e.g. may volunteer from an advert in a newspaper
- potential participants will volunteer when asked
92
what are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
- easy - requires minimal effort from the researcher and less time
93
What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
- volunteer bias
- may attract a certain ‘profile’ of people which may affect hoe generalisable your findings are
94
What is a case study?
An in-depth, detailed investigation of one individual, small group, institution or event usually in the real world.
95
Case studies are idiographic and __________________ in nature.
Individualistic
96
Name some features of a case study.
- usually include biographical details
- researchers examine individuals in great depth
- often analyse usuals individuals or events
- subjective
- produces qualitative data
- longitudinal studies
97
Name 2 advantages of using a case study.
- rich detail
- longitudinal -changes in experience can be measured
- allow sensitive areas to be explored
- useful for theory contradiction
98
Name 2 disadvantages of using a case study.
- not representative - cannot be generalised
- researcher bias - bias in interpretation
- reliance on memory - may not be accurate
99
What are 3 examples of measures of central tendency?
Mean, median, mode
100
What are 2 examples of measures of dispersion?
Range, standard deviation
101
What is a mean?
Adding up all the scores/values in a data set and dividing this figure by the total nu,bear of scores/ values there are.
102
What is a strength of using a mean?
- sensitive, includes all the scores in the data set
- representative of the data as a whole
103
What is a weakness of using a mean?
- distorted by extreme vales, may not be representative
- cant be used with ordinal data
- the mean score may not be one of the actual scores in the data set
104
What is the median?
The middle value in a data set when scores are arranged from lowest to highest. In an even number of scores, the median is halfway between the two middle scores.
105
What are 2 strengths of using a median?
- extreme scores do not effect as it is the middle value
- easy to calculate
- can be used with ordinal data
106
What is a weakness of using a median?
-it is less sensitive than he mean as not all scored are included in the final calculation.
107
What is the mode?
The mode is the most frequently occurring score/value within a data set. In some data sets there may be 2 modes (bi-modal) or no mode if all the scores are different.
108
What is a strength of using a mode?
- easy to calculate
- less prone to distortion by extreme values
109
What is a weakness of using a mode?
- does not use all scores
- there may not be a mode
- may not e representative of the data set as a whole
110
what is the range?
A simple calculation of the spread of scores. Takes the lowest value from the highest value.
111
What is the strength of using the range?
Easy to calculate
112
What a re the weaknesses of using the range?
- only takes into account the two most extreme values, may be unrepresentative of the data set a a whole.
- it does not show wether data are clustered or spread evenly around the mean.
113
What is standard deviation?
A single cal ye that ells us how far scores deviate from the mean.
The larger standard deviation, the greater spread of scores within a set of data.
A large standard deviation suggests that not all participants were affected by the IV in the name way visa versa (small SD=respond/affected in a similar way)
114
what is a strength of using standard deviation?
- precise, includes all values within the final calculation.
115
What are the weaknesses of using standard deviation?
- complex to calculate
- can be distorted by extreme values (as it includes every value).
116
What does correlation not show?
Cause and effect
117
what does correlation show?
A relationship between the two variables
118
What is positive correlation?
As one variable increases, so does the other
119
What is the correlation coefficient for perfect positive correlation?
+1
The close to this number you get shows a positive correlation
120
What is considered a strong positive correlation?
A coefficient of 0.7 and above
121
What is negative correlation?
As one variable increases, the other deceases.
122
What is the correlation coefficient of negative correlation?
-1
123
What is considered a a strong negative correlation?
-0.7
124
What is no correlation?
Whee there is no relationship between the two variables
125
What is the correlation coefficient when there is no correlation?
0
126
What is an examples of a non directional correlational hypothesis?
There will be a ** correlation ** between the number of units of alcohol drank per week and depression rating out of 20
127
What is an example of a directional correlational hypothesis?
There will be a **positive correlation** between the number of units of alcohol drank per week and depression rating out of 20
128
what is an example of a null correlational hypothesis?
There will be **no correlation** between the number of units of alcohol drank per week and a depression raring out of 20.
129
What are two strengths of correlational design?
- can show a relationship that might not be expected which can prompt future research in new areas
- allows to study something that an experimenter cant change deliberately as it would be unethical e.g the effect of a traumatic experience
130
What are two weaknesses of correlational design?
- correlations do not show cause and effect, only that the two variables are related.
- correlational studies tend to lack validity whenever a score is manufactured e.g. IQ or mental health scores there’s always a chance its not measuring anything useful.
131
What are distributions?
Visible representations of psychological data.
132
What shape is a normal distribution curve?
A bell shaped curve
133
In a normal distribution most scores will be on or around the____.
Mean
134
In a normal distribution curve the mean median and mode with occupy the same _____-______ on the curve
Midpoint
135
What does a skewed distribution curve look like?
It appears to lean to one side
136
Describe the distributions on a positive skew.
Most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left side of the graph
137
Describe the distribution on a negative skew.
Most of the distribution concentration is concentrated towards the right of the graph
138
What are the elements of the BPS code of ethics?
Informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
Brief + debrief
Right to withdraw
Privacy and confidentiality
139
What is informed consent?
investigators should give participants sufficient details of an investigation that they can make a considered choice as to whether they wish to participate.
140
When can someone not give informed consent?
Parental consent should be obtained in the case of children under 16 years of age. Informed consent cannot be gained from those under the influence of alcohol or drugs or mentally unfit to give consent.
141
How can investigators deal with informed consent?
Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.
142
What are 3 alternative ways of getting consent?
Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Retrospective consent
143
What is presumptive consent?
rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agree, then consent of the original participants is ‘presumed’.
144
What is prior general consent?
participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies – including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.
145
What is retrospective consent?
participants are asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.
146
What is deception?
the withholding of information or the misleading of participants is unacceptable if participants are likely to object or show unease once debriefed.
147
What is protection from harm?
As a results of their involvement, participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from any physical and psychological harm.
148
How do investigators deal with deception?
At the end of a study, participants should be given a full debrief.
149
How do investigators deal with protection from harm?
At the end of a study, participants should be given a full debrief. Participants should be reassured their behaviour was normal/typical. In extreme cases the researcher may refer to a counsellor.
150
What is the right to withdraw?
Participants have the right to leave the study at any point without giving reason and without consequence.should be aware that they can leave a study at any time, and can even withdraw their data after the study has finished. They should be informed at the start, throughout and at the end of the study.
151
how do investigators deal with the right to withdraw?
Whilst it might be frustrating for the researcher to lose participants after they’ve spend time recruiting and selecting them, the participant should be aware that they can leave a study at any time, and can even withdraw their data after the study has finished. They should be informed at the start, throughout and at the end of the study
152
What is privacy and confidentiality?
Participants have the right to control information about themselves. This is the right of privacy. If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected.
Confidentiality refers to our right, enshrined in law under the Data protection Act, to have any personal data protected.
153
How do investigators deal with privacy and confidentiality?
If personal details are held these must be protected.
It is more usual to simply record no personal details i.e. maintain anonymity. Numbers should be used instead of names in published research papers.
In a case study, psychologists often use initials when describing the individual involved.
It is standard practice that during briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process.
154
Name 4 things a briefing should include in an investigation.
Who you are
The area of research
Who is conducting the research (e.g. Leeds university)
Procedure – what they will be required to do
Where the research will take place
How long it will take
If they will be recorded
That their data will be stored securely
They will remain anonymous
They can withdraw from the study at any time
They can withdraw their data at the end of the study if they wish
A more detailed overview of the research will be given at the end when there will also be a chance to ask questions
Include an appropriate ending (see below)
155
Name 4 things a debriefing should include in an investigation.
Thank participants for taking part
Make participants aware of the true aims of the investigation
Make participants know the rationale for the research – why it is important
Give any details they were not given e.g. the existence of another condition
Tell participant what their data will be used for
Remind them they can withdraw their data without reason or consequence
Reassure participants their behaviour was typical (e.g. if worried about poor performance)
If they feel stress, anxiety or embarrassment they may require counselling
Researcher should refer participants to the appropriate service/professional
Ask participants if they have any questions
Give them contact name and number/email for further information
156
What do observations allow?
Allow psychologists to see what people do without asking them
Allow them to observe behaviour in a natural or controlled setting
157
What are the 3 type of observation?
Naturalistic or controlled
Participant or non-participant
Covert or overt
158
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
All aspects of the environment are free to vary
Interactions take place as they normally would
159
What are 2 advantages of a naturalistic observation?
High external validity – findings can be generalised to everyday life
Behaviour is more natural and unaffected by anxiety and the need to impress (if unaware of the observer)
160
what are 2 disadvantages of naturalistic observations?
Uncontrolled extraneous variables – difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
Thorough replication is harder to achieve so less reliable
161
What is a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment
Some control over variables
May manipulate variables to observe effects
Control over extraneous variables
162
What is an advantage of a controlled observation?
Replication of the observation is easier (extraneous variables can be controlled)
163
What are 2 disadvantages of controlled observations?
Reduces the ‘naturalness’ of the behaviour being studied
Artificial setting, possibly inhibiting atmosphere resulting in less external validity
164
What is a covert observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
They are unaware that they are being observed
Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway to be ethical
165
What are 2 advantages of covert observations?
If participants are unaware they are being observed, their behaviour should remain natural – reduces participant reactivity
Increased validity (usual behaviour)
166
What is a disadvantage of covert observations?
Ethical issues surrounding informed consent, privacy, deception and right to withdraw
167
what is an overt observation?
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
168
What is an advantage of overt observations?
No ethical issues regarding informed consent, privacy, deception and right to withdraw
169
What are 2 disadvantages of overt observations?
Knowing that you are being observed may alter your behaviour (affects validity)
Participants may guess what you’re expecting to see (demand characteristics)
170
What is a participant observation?
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching
Researcher’s role may be hidden in order to join a group.
171
what are 2 advantages of participant observations?
Likely to provide special insights into behaviour from the ‘inside’
Increased validity – no ‘strange’ observer affecting behaviour
172
What are 2 disadvantages of participant observations?
Participating may affect observer’s objectivity (‘going native’ – line between researcher and participant becomes blurred)
Researcher may have to rely on memory – no time to make notes as they happen
173
What is a non-participant observation?
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
174
What are 2 advantages of non-participant observations?
Researcher can be more objective
Researcher doesn’t interfere with the behaviour being observed
175
What are 2 disadvantages of non-participant observations?
Data less valid as observer may affect behaviour
May lose valuable insight as they’re too far away from participants
176
When should you use a bar chart?
To show data in the form of categories to be compared
177
What are the features of a bar chart?
Show data in the form of categories to be compared (discrete data)
E.g. male and female chocolate consumption each week
Categories are placed on the x axis (horizontal)
Bars should be the same width and separated by spaces
the spaces illustrate that the data on the x axis is not continuous
Bar charts can show totals, means, percentages or ratios
They can also display two values together e.g. male and female chocolate consumption for under 20’s and over 20’s
178
When should you use a histogram?
For continuous data e.g test scores
179
what are the features of a histogram?
Histograms are used for continuous data e.g. test scores
The continuous scores are placed along the x axis (horizontal)
The frequency of these scores is shown on the y axis (vertical)
There are no spaces between the bars as the data is continuous
The column width should be the same for each category
180
What are the features of a line graph/ frequency polygon?
Data on the x axis are continuous data
Graph is produced by drawing a line from the mid-point top of each bar in a histogram
The advantage of a line graph is that two or more frequency distributions can be compared on the same graph
181
what data is used in a scattergram/scatter graph?
Correlational data
182
What are the features of a scatter graph?
Used with correlational data
When you’ve got two different co-variables
Each participant will have a pair of scores
Plot one alone the bottom (x axis) and one up the side (y axis)
Used to see if there is a relationship between two variables
183
What is a pie chart used to show?
The frequency of categories as percentages.
184
What are the features of a pie chart?
Pie charts are used to show the frequency of categories as percentages
The pie is split into sections
Each one represents the frequency of a category
The sections are colour coded and usually labelled with a percentage
185
What is self report?
Where the participant gives information to the researcher/provides details of their own feelings, thoughts or behaviour
186
Describe what a questionnaire is.
Involve a pre-set list of written questions/items to which the participant responds
Used to assess thoughts and/or feelings
May be used as part of an experiment to assess the DV
187
What are open questions?
Does not have a fixed range of answers
Respondents free to answer in any way they wish
Tend to produce qualitative data, rich in depth and detail
Data may be difficult to analyse
E.g. What is your opinion on corporal punishment?
188
What is a closed question?
Offers a fixed number of responses
This might be a yes/no answer
We might get them to rate how anxious they feel during exams on a scale of 1-10
Produce numerical data.
Quantitative data – usually easy to analyse
May lack depth and detail associated with open questions
E.g. Do you believe in corporal punishment?
189
What are 2 strengths of questionnaires?
Cost effective – can gather large amounts of data quickly as distribution to large amounts of people
Data lends itself to statistical analysis
190
What are 2 weaknesses of questionnaires?
Social desirability bias/idealised answers (a form of demand characteristic – answering in a way that makes themselves look better)
Biased samples – only people willing to take the time to complete them – certain type of people, not representative
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Outline what an interview is.
Some interviews may be conducted over the phone
Most involve a face-to-face interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee
There are different types:
Structured, unstructured, semi-structured
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What are the 3 types of interview?
Structured, unstructured, semi-structured
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Outline the features of a structured interview.
Made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
Basically like a questionnaire but face-to-face (or over the phone) in real time
Interviewer asks the question and waits for a response
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Outline the features of an unstructured interview
Like a conversation
No set questions
There’s a general aim/certain topic to be discussed
Interaction is free-flowing
Interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers when prompted
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Outline the features of a semi structured interview.
There is a list of questions worked out in advance but interviewers are free to follow-up questions where appropriate
E.g. Job interview
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What are 2 advantages of an interview?
Unstructured interviews allow follow-up of points – can gain more insight into the worldview of the interviewee
Ease misunderstandings – any misunderstood questions can be explained, individual questions can be adapted so everyone understands
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what are 2 disadvantages of interviews?
Interview training – a lot of skill needed for unstructured interviews, particularly with sensitive issues. Such interviewers not easy to find.
Analysis of data from an unstructured interview is not straightforward – drawing firm conclusions from vast amounts of data may not be possible
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What is social desirability?
Social desirability bias is a tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light. This will lower validity!
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What are the 3 types of closed question?
Likert scales
Rating scales
Fixed choice options
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What is a likert scale question?
The respondent indicates their agreement
with a statement using a scale of usually 5 points. Ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Statement: Zombie films can have educational value
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree agree neutral disagree Strongly disagree
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What is a rating scale question?
Works in a similar way but gets respondents to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a topic.
Question: How entertaining do you find zombie films?
Very entertaining 1 2 3 4 5 Not entertaining
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What is a fixed choice option question?
includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them.
Question: For what reason do you watch zombie films? (Tick all those that apply)
Entertainment To escape To be frightened
Amusement Education To please others
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What elements should you include when designing an interview?
Most interviews involve an interview schedule
This is a list of questions the interviewer intends to cover
Standardised for each participant to reduce interviewer bias
Interviewer will take notes throughout the interview or it will be recorded and analysed later
Interviews can involve a single participant or can be a group interview
If single participant, room should be quiet away from others
Begin with neutral questions – make participant feel relaxed/comfortable/establish rapport
Reminded participants of confidentiality/right to withdraw
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What should you avoid when writing a question in self-report?
Avoid using technical terms only familiar to those within a specialist field. This leads to confusion and frustration.
Emotive language and leading questions: more neutral words should be used. It shouldn’t be obvious what the researcher's attitudes are. You also shouldn’t guide the respondent towards a particular answer
Double-barrelled questions: If you have two questions in one, the respondent may agree with one half but not the other.
Double negatives: e.g. I am not unhappy in my job (agree/disagree)
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Describe the process of content analysis.
•Familiarise yourself with data (film/diary/transcript etc)
•Identify important categories
•Give examples
•Repeatedly read through/watch/listen to recording
•Count/tally behaviours
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What are 2 strengths of content analysis?
Ease of application – easy to perform, inexpensive research method, non-invasive as it doesn’t require participants
Avoids most ethical issues – much of the material e.g. adverts, films will already in public domain so no issues with permission.
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What are 2 weaknesses of content analysis?
Descriptive – does not reveal underlying reasons for behaviour, attitudes etc
Flawed results - lack of availability of content means it might not reflect reality (negative content gets more coverage than positive)
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Wha is content analysis?
is a method of quantifying qualitative data through the use of coding units (numerical analysis of written, verbal and visual communications)
•Counting the occurrence of words, themes etc
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What is thematic analysis?
Thematic analysis is linked with content analysis but is a qualitative analytic method for identifying, analysing and reporting themes within the data
•Thematic analysis goes beyond just counting words or phrases
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What are the stages involved in thematic analysis?
Familiarisation with the data – intensely reading the data to become immersed in its content
2.Coding – generating codes (labels) that identifies features of the data important to answering the research question
3.Searching for themes – examining the codes and data to identify patterns of meaning (potential themes) e.g. ‘stereotyping of mentally ill’
4.Reviewing themes – checking the potential themes to see if they explain the data and answer the research question. Themes are then refined (splitting, combining or discarding)
5.Defining and naming themes – detailed analysis of each theme. Creating an informative name for each one
6.Writing up – combining all information gained from the analysis
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What is peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field
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What is the purpose of peer review?
Ensures that any research that is published is of high quality and accurate
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describe the process of pee review.
Several expert reviewers would be sent copies of a researchers work by a
journal editor
• The reviewers report back to the editor, highlighting weaknesses or problem
areas, as well as suggestions for improvement if necessary
• The reviewers may recommend that a) the work is accepted unconditionally
b) the work is accepted as long as it is improved in certain ways c) the work is
rejected but suggest revisions/resubmissions or d) research should be
rejected outright
- the journal editor makes the final decision wether to accept or reject the research based on the reviewers’ comments
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What are the 3 conditions peer review may take place as?
Single blind review
Double blind review
Open review
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What are the 4 criticisms of peer review?
Finding an expert:
It isn’t always possible to find an appropriate expert/someone with sufficient knowledge to review a research proposal or report if the research topic is obscure. This means that poor
research may be passed because the reviewer didn’t really understand it.
Anonymity:
There is the danger that anonymous reviewers may delay the review process to allow them to publish similar research first (even plagiarising research and then passing it off as their own) and/or hide behind their anonymity to be undeservedly harsh.
• The problem with keeping the researcher anonymous is that it is likely they would still be identifiable from the writing/research style etc.
• The problem with open reviewing is that it may be that deserved criticism is watered down due to politeness or fear of retribution from famous, powerful researchers.
Burying ground-breaking research:
• The ability to publish research papers is controlled by elites, therefore there may be resistance to revolutionary ideas thatgo against the elite or prevailing views.
• Peer review can result in a preference for research that goes with existing theory rather than dissenting or unconventional work.
• Reviewers tend to be especially critical of research that contradicts their own view
• Science is generally resistant to large shifts in opinion. Change takes a long time and requires a ‘revolution’ in the way people think. Peer review may be one of the elements that slow down the rate of change.
Publication bias:
-Journals tend to prefer to publish positive results, possibly because editors want research that has important implications in order to increase the standing of their journal.
• It has been suggested that journals are as bad as newspapers for seeking eye-catching storie
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What is the accepted level of probability?
0.05 (5%)
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What does ‘the results were significant at p<0.05’ mean?
There is a less than 5% likelihood that the difference would occur by chance and 95% confidence that the difference is genuine
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What is a type I error?
Optimistic error
Alternative hypothesis is accepted but null hypothesis is correct
Null hypothesis has been wrongly rejected
219
what is a type II error?
Pessimistic error
Null hypothesis is accepted but the alternative hypothesis is correct
A real relationship has been wrongly accepted as being insignificant
220
How do you calculate the observed value ‘S’ in a sign test?
Add up the number of times the less frequent sign occurs
221
What test is asked to be calculated?
Sign test
222
What are the two types of validity?
Internal
External
223
What is validity?
The extent to which a researcher has measured what they intend to measure
224
What are threats to validity?
Participant variables
Situational variables
225
How can validity be improved?
Experimental research
Qualitative methods
Questionnaires
Observations
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What is reliability?
A measure of consistency both within a set of scores and over time
227
What is internal reliability?
The extent to which a measure is consistent within itself
228
What is external validity?
The extent to which a measure is consistent over time
229
What are methods of testing internal reliability?
Split-half method:
Split test in two
Same participant does both halves
If both halves provide similar results, the test has internal reliability
230
How is external reliability tested?
Test-retest method:
Give same test to same participant on two occasions
If same result is obtained, reliability is established
Inter-observer reliability:
Wether different observers are viewing and rating behaviour in the same way
Achieved by conducting correlations of all observers scores
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How can reliability be improved?
Questionnaires - closed questions
Experiments - lab
Interviews - same interviewer - structured interviews
Observations - operationalised behavioural categories
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what are the elements of a report of a psychological investigation
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Aims and hypotheses
Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Appendices
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Describe the title when reporting psychological investigations
Clear, relevant and fully informative
234
Describe the abstract when reporting psychological investigations
Summary of the research, includes aims, hypothesis, procedure, results, conclusion
235
Describe the introduction when reporting psychological investigations
Why the study was conducted, theoretical background, previous research, beginning broadly then narrowing down the investigation
236
Describe the aims and hypothesis when reporting psychological investigations
Includes alternative and null hypothesis, one or two-tailed level of significance
237
Describe the method when reporting psychological investigations
In enough detail so others could replicate it
Includes design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure and ethics
238
Describe the results when reporting psychological investigations
Descriptive statistics e.g. tables, graphs, measures of central tendency and dispersion and inferential statistics- choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values and which hypothesis was accepted
239
Describe the discussion when reporting psychological investigations
Explanation of findings, relationship to background research, limitations and possible improvements to research, implications and suggestions for future research
240
Describe the conclusion when reporting psychological investigations
Concise paragraph to summarise key conclusions drawn from the study
241
Describe references when reporting psychological investigations
Full details of any source material researcher drew upon or cited
242
What is the importance of references in a report of a psychological investigation?
Prevents plagiarism
243
Describe the appendices when reporting psychological investigations
Contains standardised instructions given to participants, raw data and calculations plus other stimulus materials used
244
Describe how a reference would be written
Surname, initial of first name, title, publisher
E.g Flanagan, C (2016). Effects of time and day on intelligence test scores: Illuminate publishing
