Issues And Debates Flashcards

Question

What are the strengths for the nomothetic approach? /against the ideographic approach?

Answer 1

1) scientific methods • The processes involved in nomothetic research tend to be more scientific, mirroring those employed within the natural sciences – testing under standardised conditions, using data sets that provide group averages, statistical analysis, prediction and control e.g. in the field of IQ testing • Such processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behavior (e.g. average IQ of 100) arguably giving the discipline of psychology greater scientific credibility 2) meaningful explanations cannot be made without further examples in the idiographic approach. Supporters of the idiographic approach must recognize the narrow and restricted nature of their work • One of the criticisms levelled at Freud is that many of his key concepts like the Oedipus Complex, were largely developed from the detailed study of a single case (Little Hans) • Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples • There is no adequate baseline with which to compare behavior • Methods associated with the idiographic approach e.g. case studies, tend to be the least scientific – conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher and are therefore open to bias.

Answer 2

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts • An explanation is reductionist when a single explanation or cause is suggested

Answer 3

• An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts. It’s the view that any attempts to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate as these can only be understood by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole.

Answer 4

Humanistic

Answer 5

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behaviour using biological systems. • This could be genetics, physiology of the body and brain, or biochemistry • It is called biological reductionism because in terms of the levels of explanation, it is as reductionism as psychology goes. They do not take into account the higher levels of explanation such as learned associations and the influence of other people

Answer 6

It simplifies a behaviour to a stimulus-response action • This level of explanation is advocated by behaviourist theorists. • classical conditioning is one such example

Answer 7

The notion of ‘levels of explanation’ suggests that there are different ways of viewing the same behaviour – some more reductionist than others • Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable level. • All these are attempts to explain the behaviour, but at differing levels. • Some would have more research evidence to support their suggestion than others • No one explanation in isolation can be taken as correct, and therefore several explanations at several levels would be more appropriate

Answer 8

• A reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research • In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts • This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations (behavioural categories) in a way that is meaningful and reliable • The behaviourist approach was able to demonstrate how complex learning could be broken down to simple stimulusresponse links within the lab • This gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences lower down in the reductionist hierarchy Holistic explanations in psychology tend not to lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and speculative as they become more complex • E.g. humanistic psychology, which takes a holistic approach to behaviour, tends to be criticised for its lack of scientific evidence, and is instead seen by many as a rather loose set of concepts • Higher level explanations that combine many different perspectives present researchers with a practical dilemma: if we accept that there are many factors that contribute to say, depression, it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential, and which one to use, for example, as a basis for therapy • This suggests when it comes to finding solutions for real world problems, lower level explanations may be more appropriate.

Answer 9

Often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at the level of the individual group members • E.g. the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals. It was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important. • This shows that holistic explanations provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena leading to a loss of validity. • E.g. biological explanations are often criticised for being too simplistic and therefore incomplete • Whilst environmental explanations can account for a number of behaviours it is likely that many different levels are needed in the explanation, with a learned association being only one of them • Explanations that operate at the level of the gene, neurotransmitter or neuron do not include an analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs – and this is where the behaviour in question may derive its meaning. This means that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.

Answer 10

• Early nativists such as Descartes (1596 – 1650) argued that human characteristics and even some aspects of knowledge are innate – the result of heredity.

Answer 11

Heredity is the genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another. • The heritability coefficient is used to assess heredity. It is a numerical figure ranging from 0 to 1.0 which indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (a value of 1 means it is entirely genetically determined)

Answer 12

• The environment is any nfluence on human behaviour that is nongenetic

Answer 13

• In a practical sense, the nature-nurture question is impossible to answer as environmental influences in a child’s life begin as soon as it is born (and perhaps even earlier) • Nature and nurture are so closely intertwined that practically and theoretically, it makes little sense to separate the two • E.g. in twin studies it is often very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more the result of shared genetics or shared upbringing • The focus of the nature-nurture debate has changed in recent years. Psychologists are now more likely to ask what the relative contribution of each influence is in terms of what we think and what we do

Answer 14

• In psychopathology, many psychologists argue that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a psychological disorder to develop (this is set out in the diathesis-stress model). • The diathesis is the biological vulnerability such as being born with a gene that predisposes you to develop a disorder. However, the disorder will only develop if there is an environmental ‘stressor’ to trigger it

Answer 15

Finnish Adoption Study compared 155 adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia, with a matched group of children with no family history of schizophrenia. • The researchers also assessed the quality of parenting through questionnaires and interviews. • They found that the group with schizophrenic mothers had a 10% rate of schizophrenia, but they also discovered that all of the reported cases of schizophrenia occurred in families rated as ‘disturbed’. • When the family environment was rated as ‘healthy’, even in the high-risk sample (mother with Schizophrenia), the occurrence of schizophrenia was well below the general population rates. • However, the environment was not the sole cause, as the low-risk children from ‘disturbed’ families did not develop Schizophrenia – so the environment alone was not enough to trigger the disorder. • This research provides strong evidence that schizophrenia is best explained by looking at an interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental triggers, in this case, family environment

Answer 16

This refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code • It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment • Aspects of our lifestyle, and the events we encounter – from smoking and diet to pollution and war – leave epigenetics ‘marks’ on our DNA. • These marks – like highlighted text, or bookmarks - tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to use, and in turn, may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children, as well as their children • Epigenetics therefore introduces a third element into the nature-nurture debate; the life experience of previous generations

Answer 17

**Dias and Ressler (2014) ** gave male lab mice electric shocks every time they were exposed to the smell of acetophenone (a chemical used in perfume) • As predicted by behaviourists, the mice showed a fear reaction as soon as the scent was presented. • Surprisingly, the rats’ children also feared the smell – even though they had no been exposed to acetophenone before or received any shocks. • So did their grandchildren!

Answer 18

• The brain can reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. • Neuroplasticity is a term which describes the changes in the structure of the brain (nature), as a result of life experience (nurture). • For example, Maguire et al. (2000) investigated the hippocampusus volume of London taxi drivers’ brains. • She found that this region of the brain was larger in taxi drivers in comparison to non-taxi drivers. • Consequently, Maguire concluded that driving a taxi (nurture) actually had an effect on the size of the hippocampusus (nature)

Answer 19

PKU is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes, one from each parent. People with PKU are unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine which builds up in the blood and brain causing mental retardation. However, if the child is diagnosed early, they are placed on a low protein diet for the first 12 years, which helps to avert this potentially lifelong disorder. Therefore, the disorder PKU (nature) is not expressed, because of an altered environment (low protein diet – nurture)

Answer 20

Diathesis-stress model Epigenetics Neural plasticity PKU

Answer 21

Nativists suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ in that our inherited genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviour, whilst the environment has little input (this links to biological determinism) • This extreme determinist stance has led to controversy such as that which attempted to link race, genetics and intelligence

Answer 22

empiricists would suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions (this links to environmental determinism) • Behaviour shaping (a behaviourist concept) has had practical application in therapy. Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored. In extreme terms this may lead one to advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates its citizens using these techniques

Answer 23

• Research attempting to ‘tease out’ the influence of the environment is complicated by the fact that even siblings raised within the same family may not have experienced exactly the same upbringing • The idea of shared and unshared environments suggest that individual differences mean that siblings may experience life events differently. E.g. age and/or temperament would mean that a life event such as parental divorce would have a different meaning to each sibling. • This would explain the finding that even MZ twins reared together do not show perfect concordance rates, which supports the view that heredity and the environment cannot be meaningfully separated

Answer 24

• The notion that genes and environment interact is elaborated by constructivism. • People create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’ • E.g. a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly. This environment then affects their development. • This shows that it is both impossible and illogical to try to separate nature and nurture influences on a child’s behaviour

Answer 25

Passive interaction Evocative interaction Active interaction

Answer 26

• Passive interaction – the parents’ genes influence the way they treat their children (musically gifted parents are likely to play to their children and encourage engagement with music)

Answer 27

Evocative interaction – the child’s genes influence and shape the environment in which they grow up (the musically talented child will be picked for school concerts and given other special opportunities)

Answer 28

• Active interaction – the child creates it’s own environment through the people and experiences it selects (the child itself chooses similar, musically talented friends and seeks out musical experiences)

Answer 29

In the context of gender bias, psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women (usually women)

Answer 30

• Alpha bias within psychological research is that which exaggerates or overestimates differences between the sexes • Although these differences may occasionally heighten the value of women, they are more likely to devalue females in relation to their male counterparts E.g • E.g. Sociobiological theory of relationship formation • This explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through the principle of ‘survival efficiency’ • It is in the males interest to try to impregnate as many women as possible to increase the chances of his genes being passed on to the next generation. • For the female, the best chance of preserving her genes is to ensure the healthy survival of the relatively few offspring she is able to produce in her lifetime. • The central premise of this theory is that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined whilst females who engage in the same behaviour are regarded as going against their ‘nature’ • This is an exaggeration of the difference between the sexes (alpha bias)

Answer 31

• Research/theories that ignore or minimise differences between men and women • This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and then it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes E.g • E.g. the flight or fight response • Early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate) and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation • More recently Taylor et al (2000) has suggested that female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriending)

Answer 32

– When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others • Bias may be an inevitable aspect of the research process. This is despite the arguments psychologists might make to have discovered ‘facts about human behaviour that are ‘objective’ and ‘value-free’ • It also undermines psychology’s claims to universality

Answer 33

Any underlying characteristics of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience, upbringing, time or culture • Gender bias and culture bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology

Answer 34

• One possible consequence of beta bias is androcentrism - Male-centred • If our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all-male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison • At best, this leads to female behaviour being misunderstood, and at worst pathologised – taken as a sign of psychological instability or disorder

Answer 35

• Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices • It may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society • In any domain in which men set the standard of normalcy, ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’ • Gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women (e.g. the statistic that females are around twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men)

Answer 36

• Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work. • Rather than seeing such bias as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, they embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process in general • Such reflexivity is an important development in psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future

Answer 37

• A lack of women appointed at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked • Psychology may therefore be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research

Answer 38

• Feminist commentators such as Judith Worrell (1992) have put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research • Women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and genuinely participate in research, rather than be the objects of study. • Diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than comparisons made between women and men • Finally there should be greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative, as opposed to numerical data.

Answer 39

A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture

Answer 40

• Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture • In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures

Answer 41

• The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts • It is argued that psychology has often been guilty of ‘imposed etic’ – where behaviour within a single culture is studied and then assumed this could be applied universally • Being able to recognise this is one way of avoiding culture bias in research

Answer 42

• Often in the past when psychologists have made reference to culture, they have done so within the context of the individualistic-collectivist distinction • Individualistic culture is associated with western countries (such as the US) who are thought to value personal freedom and independence. • Collectivist cultures (such as India and China) are said to place more emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group. • However, critics have suggested in this age of global communication and increased interconnectedness that such a simplistic distinction between cultures no longer applies

Answer 43

• One of the greatest benefits of conducting cross-cultural research is that it may challenge our typically Western ways of thinking and viewing the world • Being able to see that some of the knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not shared by other people around the world may promote a greater sensitivity to individual difference and cultural relativism in the future • This not only counters the charge of ‘scientific racism’ that has been made against some psychological theories in the past but also means that the conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity if they include recognition of the role of culture in bringing them about

Answer 44

• One other issue with conducting research in different cultures is that the variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants. • For instance, the behavioural expression of emotions such as ‘aggression’ may give rise to quite different behaviours within an indigenous population than they would in the West.. • In China, the invasion of personal space is seen as normal, whereas in the West this may be seen as threatening or confrontational • Issues like these may affect interactions between the researcher and participants, or between Western and non-Western participants, in cross-cultural studies.

Answer 45

Social sensitivity refers to any psychological research that has wider ethical implications that impact outside of the research context. The research might affect people or groups in society

Answer 46

The social impact of psychological research once it has been conducted. Although researchers may exercise considerable control over the methods they select and the way they treat participants but they may have relatively little say in terms of: • how their research findings are represented (or misrepresented) in the media • The impact of their work on public policy • How it may influence our perception of particular groups in society

Answer 47

Implications, uses/public policy, validity of the research • Implications – the wider effects of such research should be carefully considered as some studies may be seen as giving ‘scientific’ credence to prejudice and discrimination e.g. studies examining the racial basis of intelligence. However the implications of research may be difficult to predict at the outset. • Uses/public policy – what is the research likely to be used for? And what would happen if it was used for the wrong purposes? This is related to the idea that findings may be adopted by the government for political ends or to shape public policy. • The validity of the research – some findings that were presented as objective and value-free in the past have actually turned out to be highly suspect, sometimes even fraudulent. However many modern social constructionist researchers who may tackle socially sensitive topics are much more up-front about their own biases and preconceptions and comment on this in their publication

Answer 48

Burt 1955 • Burt was influential in establishing the 11+ exam in the UK, which was used to determine whether children had a secondary modern education or went to grammar school (a decision which would likely have a significant impact on their life chances) • Burt’s views were based on the evidence he produced that intelligent was genetic, citing twin studies showing a heritability coefficient of .77 • Discrepancies in his ‘data’ later revealed that Burt had made much of it up as well as inventing two research assistants and he was publicly discredited. • The 11+ however, and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence, remained for a good few years afterwards and still lingers. Bowlby • Bowlby’s argument, that mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical health, influenced the way in which at least a generation of children were raised. • It may have also influenced the UK government’s decision not to offer free child care places to children under five (despite the fact that this is typical in other European countries) • Bowlby’s work could also have had an indirect effect on the legal ‘norm’ that mothers are granted custody of the children in divorce and separation cases (whereas previously it was invariably given to fathers)

Answer 49

• Despite the ethical implications associated with research into controversial and ‘taboo’ topics, Scarr (1988) argues that studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these • This can help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance • Socially sensitive research has benefitted society e.g. research into the unreliability of eyewitness testimony has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system • This suggests that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society

Answer 50

• Sieber and Stanley (1988) warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted • e.g. research into so-called ‘alternate relationships’ has been guilty of a form of heterosexual bias’ within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms • This suggests that investigators must approach their research with an open mind and be prepared to have their preconceptions challenged if they are to avoid misrepresenting minority groups.

Answer 51

• An America in the 1920s and 30s, a large number of US States enacted legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens on the grounds that they were ‘feeble-minded’ and a drain on society. • This included people deemed to be of low intelligence, drug or alcohol addicts and the mentally ill. • The rationale, supported by many sections of the scientific and psychological community at the time, was that such feeble-minded people were ‘unfit’ to breed. • The fact that socially sensitive research has been used to ‘prop up’ discriminatory practices in the past is an argument against its widespread adoption

Issues And Debates Flashcards

(75 cards)