Gender Flashcards
(30 cards)
What is sex and gender
Sex - innate (biological) based on chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
Gender – the psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women including attitudes, behaviours and social roles
Sex role stereotypes
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for men and women in a given social group or society
What did Furnham and farrager find about sexual stereotypes in TV adverts
Men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts
Women were depicted in familial roles within domestic settings
Androgyny
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics
Tend to have more positive psychological health outcomes
Bem sex roll inventory
First systematic attempt to measure androgyny
Used self report on a seven point Likert scale
Used rating scale of 60 traits
Produce scores across dimensions: masculinity, femininity, androgyny, and differentiated
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the BSRI
. S research finds positive correlation between androgyny good mental health, support importance of androgyny as an indicator of mental health
. S research used BSRI to provide supporting evidence that androgynous females had better quality relationships, supports idea of androgyny having higher interpersonal functioning, increases validity of the BSRIas a measure of psychological well-being
. W androgyny not always associated with positive mental health, may demonstrate negative masculine characteristics such as aggressiveness, or opposite being too timid
. S good test retest reliability, suggest reliable
. W temporal validity, generated in 1970s, typical behaviour has changed since then
Describe the role of chromosomes in sex and gender
23rd pair of chromosomes determine biological sex
Female XX, male XY
Y chromosome carries SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo, testes produce androgens causing embryo to become male
Describe the role of hormones in sex and gender development
. Most development occurs through influence of hormones
. Hormones act on brain in womb causing development of reproductive organs
. Result in secondary sex characteristics in puberty
. Testosterone – prenatally controls development of male sex organs, linked to aggression
. Oestrogen – determines menstruation, breast development, heightened emotions and irritability
. Oxytocin, - love hormone, released in massive quantities in labour and after childbirth, makes mother love baby, stimulates lactation, reduces cortisol allowing bonding
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender development
. S research found that in offenders with highest levels of testosterone, more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes
. S research found transgender women show decreases in aggression and visual spatial skills, transgender men show the opposite, support role of sex hormones in gender related behaviour
. W research gave males either 10 weekly injections of testosterone or a placebo, found no significant differences in aggression, questions if hormones determine behaviour
. W Mead conducted research into three tribes in Papa New Guinea, in the Arapesh both males and females displayed non-aggressive gentle typically feminine behaviour, if all behaviour caused by hormones behaviours will be the same across all cultures
. W research into hormones maybe reductionist, oversimplified complex concepts, other approaches may be more relevant, can also lead to negative stereotypes
Atypical sex chromosome pattern is: Klinefelter’s and turners syndrome
. Klinefelter’s – Biologically male, anatomical appearance of males, have XXY chromosomes
.Have reduce body hair, underdeveloped genitals, breast development, more susceptible to health problems such as breast cancer
. Have poorly developed language skills, passive and shy, don’t respond well to stress
. Turner syndrome – X0 chromosomes, 45 instead of 46 chromosomes
. Under developed ovaries, lack of periods, don’t develop breasts, Llosa ears and wide neck, physically immature,
. higher than average reading ability, Lower performance on spatial visual memory and mathematical skills, socially immature
What are the strengths and weaknesses of atypical sex chromosome patterns
. S practical applications – individuals identified and treated from young age have significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood, research leads to increased understanding therefore having a direct benefit to people with the patterns
. S contribute towards understanding of nature nurture debate in gender development, allows for comparisons between these individuals and typical people, can identify differences in gendered behaviour allowing behaviour to be contributed to the chromosomal differences
. W lack of causal relationships, possible the impact of environmental or social influence is more important than the research says, immature in females Woodturners could be because of others responses to them as they look prepubescent
(Kohlberg) Cognitive explanations of gender development
Kohlberg
Believe when children have cognitive ability to understand that gender is fixed and constant, they develop schemas of appropriate and inappropriate same-sex behaviour and characteristics
Schemas develop through environmental interactions with children seek out and imitate same-sex models, called self socialisation
. Gender identity – 2 to 3 years – child understand that there a boy or a girl, but believe gender can change
. Gender stability – 3 to 5 years – child understands their gender is fixed, unable to apply this to other people in other situations, confuse by superficial changes
. Gender constancy – 67 years – child understands gender remains fixed over different situations, children cognitively ready to develop appropriate gender roles and behaviour
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the (kohlberg) cognitive explanations to gender development
. S research found when doll dressed in transparent clothes so there was a discrepancy between its clothing and its genitals, 3 to 4-year-old children decided based on gender of clothing, supports Kohlberg‘s theory of development, suggest gender constancy not yet reached
. W Bandura found children as young as four so they like playing with gender appropriate toys, not gender inappropriate toys, dispute Kohlberg‘s claim that children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour once they reach the gender constancy stage, suggests gender appropriate information absorbed younger
. W methodological problems – developed using interviews with children as young as two, children may lack vocabulary and understanding to properly express gender, there was validity, therefore findings not representative of children’s understanding of gender
. W doesn’t account for individual differences – boys tend to show stronger sex typing and girls, if development purely due to maturation, no difference in male and female gender identity, suggests effects of socialisation so environmental influences so social explanations may be a better explanation of gender development
What are cognitive explanations of gender development (gender schema theory)
. Gender schema – organised set of attitudes, beliefs and values stored in memory about gender behaviour
. Schema theory – proposes gender schemas learnt about what is appropriate and inappropriate gender behaviour through observations and interactions with others, develop from 2 after basic gender identity is established, children most interested in schemas which match there in group gender identity and avoid outgroup gender schemas
. Schemas changing become more complex as child’s cognitive abilities develop, more flexible over time, many teenagers become more androgynous
What are the strengths and weaknesses of cognitive explanations of gender development (gender schema theory)
. S Children under 6 more likely to remember photographs of gender consistent behaviours than inconsistent behaviours when tested a week later, also found children under age for showed no signs of gender stability or constancy still demonstrated strong sex type behaviour and attitudes
. W key assumptions unsupported, suggests that its possible to change schemas, actually shown to be very difficult, many people have strong views regarding sex equality, but fail to show in a day-to-day behaviour, demonstrates attitudes do not necessarily lead to behaviour, schema theory assumes child’s attitudes to affect behaviour, questions validity
. W reductionist over exaggerates importance of schemas, doesn’t pay attention to social factors E.G.roles of parental influence and reward and punishment, girls may be punished for being assertive and dominant boys praised for showing these qualities therefore inappropriate to be concluded that schemas alone are responsible for general development
Psychodynamic explanation of gender development
. Freud suggests profile that children have no concept of gender identity
. Identity forms between three and five
. Oedipus complex – boys desire mother, so father is a rival, develop hatred for father, recognise father is more powerful, castration anxiety, to resolve conflict or gives up love for mother and identifies with father leading to development of male sex role
. Electra complex - girl discovered she doesn’t have a penis, develops penis envy, blames mother for lack of penis, sees mother as a rival standing in the Way of father, girl accepts she will never have penis and substitute desire for penis to have children, lead to identification with mother and development of the female sex role
Strengths and weaknesses of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development
. S recently the gender identity of 49 boys age 3 to 11 based on interviews with boy and family, those judged as having issues with gender identity, 75% had neither the biological father or substitute living with them, suggest being raised without a father had negative impact on gender identity, supports identification of internalisation
. W evidence comes from case study (little hands) lacks validity, ungeneralisable
. W cannot be applied to non-nuclear families, suggests non-nuclear families would have a negative effect on child’s gender development, evidence doesn’t support this
. W androcentric theory, focuses on male gender identity, criticised for reflecting patriarchal Victorian era where theory was established, illustrates of a bias as female is founded on the idea that women desire to be like men
Social learning theory of gender development
. Explains influence of environment in shaping Identity
. Direct reinforcement – children reinforce the demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate, called differential reinforcement, through this child learns gender identity, behaviours then imitated if reinforced (direct or indirect)
. Indirect reinforcement – consequences of another persons behaviour a pleasant, more likely to be imitated by child, you’ve consequence leads to punishment, less likely to be imitated
. Identification – child attaches themselves a role model, flags, child imitates behaviour called modelling
. Mediational processes – attention retention reproduction motivation
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the social learning theory for gender development
. S Smith and Iloyd dressed 4-6 month old babies in either girls or boys clothes, found adults interacted with babies differently, boy adult selected hammer shaped rattle, more adventurous an active with baby, girl reinforced passive behaviour and selected a cuddle doll to play with, suggest gender behaviour is reinforced an early age
. S explains changing gender roles – can explain shifting cultural norms as there has been no change in biology
. W doesn’t provide adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age
. W contradicted by David Reimer, born biological male but raised female due to accident surgery, David never felt like a female, changed identity later to male, suggests biology has stronger influence
How to media and culture influence gender roles
. SLT explains influence of environment in shaping gender identity
. Indirect vicarious reinforcement if a child observes in the media that the consequences of another persons gender behaviour pleasant, behaviour more likely to be imitated
. Identification – child touches themselves the role model, flags, more likely to influence the gender behaviour, called modelling
. Change word media to culture
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the influence of media and gender roles
. S Research provides support for SLT explanation of gender, illustrates effects of learning through imitation observation, media provides role models that children can identify and want to imitate, study of tv adverts mum more likely to be shown in professional context, women in domestic settings, suggest media plays role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes
. S found children age 6 to 12 who watch more than 25 hours of TV a week had more sex stereotype perceptions than those who watch 10 hours or less, suggest media is source of information for stereotypes, however correlation evidence
. many examples of counter stereotypes in media, challenged traditional gender roles, you strong female role models in the media
Who research the influence of culture on gender roles and what did they find
. Mead in papa New Guinea
. Carried out on tribal groups and looked for cross-cultural gender roles
. Arapesh – Gentle and cooperative
. Mundugumor – Aggressive and hostile
. Tchambuli – Women were dominant and organised village life, men passive and considered to be decorative
Concluded gender is culturally determined, gender roles are required through socialisation and adherence to cultural norms
What are the criticisms of Meads research
. Didn’t separate her own opinions from her description of Symonne life, observer bias, and made generalisations based on a short period study, questions validity of findings as may not be objective
. Evidence to support gender being more biological than cultural, many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles, buss found similar patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents, suggests that some gender roles are universal so maybe biological
. Imposed etics, suggest at least one member of the local population should be included in the research team to increase cultural validity
. Nature or nurture – doesn’t solve nature nurture debate, impossible to separate two influences on development of gender roles
Gender dysphoria
. Distress caused by the feeling of mismatch between biological sex and gender that a person feels they are
. Recognised as a psychological disorder in the DSM 5
