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issues and debates Flashcards

fml (66 cards)

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1
Q

What is the concept of gender bias in psychology?

A

Theories may not accurately represent the experience of both genders.

Psychological research often conducted on men and generalised to women.

Two forms: alpha bias and beta bias.

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2
Q

What is alpha bias in gender bias?

A

Exaggerates differences between males and females.

Often devalues one gender, typically females.

Example: Freud’s theory suggested females had weaker superegos.

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2
Q

How does androcentrism relate to gender bias?

A

Male behaviour is taken as the norm.

Female behaviour is often judged as abnormal.

Results in misunderstanding of female behaviour.

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3
Q

What is ethnocentrism in cultural bias?

A

Belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group.

Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own.

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3
Q

What is beta bias in gender bias?

A

Minimises or ignores differences between genders.

Research based mainly on males is applied to females.

Example: Fight or flight research, based largely on male animals.

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3
Q

How can gender bias impact the validity of research findings?

A

Misrepresents real gender differences.

May reinforce stereotypes.

Limits application of findings to wider populations.

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4
Q

What is cultural bias in psychology?

A

Ignoring cultural differences and interpreting all behaviour through the lens of one’s own culture.

Often a Western bias (ethnocentrism).

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5
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

Understanding cultures in their own context.

Behaviour should be judged relative to the culture it originates from

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5
Q

Describe an example of cultural bias in psychological research.

A

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation assumed separation anxiety was a universal sign of attachment.

Later research (Takahashi) showed Japanese children responded differently

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6
Q

What does the nature-nurture debate involve

A

Whether behaviour is determined by genes (nature) or environment (nurture).

Nature side: genetic inheritance and biological factors.

Nurture side: environment and learning experiences.

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7
Q

What is the interactionist approach in the nature-nurture debate?

A

Nature and nurture interact to shape behaviour.

Example: Attachment explained by innate temperament and caregiver responses.

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8
Q

Describe the aims of Buss’s cross-cultural study on mate preferences

A

Investigate if evolutionary factors influenced mate preferences.

Examine gender similarities and differences across 37 cultures.

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9
Q

Describe the procedure of Buss’s study on mate preferences.

A

10,000 participants from 37 different cultures completed questionnaires.

Rated importance of traits like financial prospects and physical attractiveness.

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10
Q

What were the findings of Buss’s cross-cultural research?

A

Females valued financial prospects more than males.

Males valued physical attractiveness and youth more.

Supports evolutionary explanations of mate preferences.

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11
Q

What does holism mean in psychology?

A

Understanding behaviour by considering the whole experience rather than individual parts.

Humanistic approach is holistic.

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12
Q

What does reductionism mean in psychology?

A

Breaking complex phenomena into simpler components.

Levels include biological, environmental, and cognitive reductionism

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13
Q

What is biological reductionism?

A

Explains behaviour in terms of biological systems (genes, neurotransmitters, brain structure).

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13
Q

What is environmental reductionism?

A

Explains behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links learned through experience.

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14
Q

What is determinism in psychology?

A

Behaviour is determined by internal or external forces.

Different types: hard, soft, biological, environmental, and psychic determinism.

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15
Q

What is free will in psychology?

A

Humans have the ability to make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.

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15
Q

What is hard determinism?

A

All behaviour has a cause that can be identified and described by science.

No room for free will

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16
Q

What is soft determinism?

A

Behaviour is constrained by biological or environmental forces, but individuals have some conscious control.

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17
Q

What is idiographic approach in psychology?

A

Focus on individual cases to understand behaviour.

Qualitative methods like case studies.

Example: Freud’s case study of Little Hans.

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18
Q

What is nomothetic approach in psychology?

A

Attempts to establish general laws of behaviour.

Quantitative methods like experiments.

Example: Behaviourist, cognitive, and biological approache

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19
Evaluate the use of idiographic vs nomothetic approaches.
Idiographic: rich, detailed insights but less generalisable. Nomothetic: scientific, generalisable but may lose individual detail
20
What research supports the idea of cultural relativism?
Berry (1969) found cross-cultural differences in conformity. Showed that behaviours seen as 'normal' vary across cultures. Supports the idea that behaviour must be judged relative to culture.
21
What research supports environmental determinism?
Behaviourist research (Skinner) demonstrated that behaviour is determined by reinforcement and punishment. Skinner argued free will is an illusion and behaviour is the result of conditioning
22
23
What research supports the nature side of the nature-nurture debate?
Bowlby's monotropic theory: children are biologically pre-programmed to form attachments. Based on evolutionary theory
24
What research supports the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate?
Bandura's Bobo Doll Study (1961). Children imitated aggression observed in adults. Demonstrated the role of learning and environment.
25
What research highlights beta bias?
Early stress research was based only on male participants (e.g., fight or flight response). Taylor et al. (2000) later suggested females exhibit a 'tend and befriend' response.
26
What research demonstrates alpha bias?
Freud’s psychosexual theory exaggerated differences between men and women. Claimed females experienced "penis envy" and had weaker morality due to lack of castration anxiety.
26
What research highlights cultural bias in attachment theory?
Takahashi (1990) found Japanese children were more distressed during the Strange Situation. Suggests attachment behaviours differ culturally and Western methods cannot be universally applied.
27
What research supports the idiographic approach?
Freud’s case study of Little Hans. Gave detailed insight into phobia development but not generalisable
27
What research supports the nomothetic approach?
Milgram’s obedience study (1963). Sought to establish general laws about obedience to authority through controlled experimentation
28
What is ethical implications in psychological research?
The impact psychological research may have on participants and wider society. Includes influencing public policy and perceptions of particular groups.
28
What are socially sensitive topics in psychology?
Topics where individuals or groups may be at risk of discrimination or stigma. Examples: race, sexuality, gender
29
What are the three concerns identified by Sieber and Stanley (1988) regarding socially sensitive research?
Implications: How findings might be interpreted/misused. Uses/public policy: Who uses the findings and how. Validity: The soundness and accuracy of the research.
30
What is an example of socially sensitive research and its implications?
Burt's research into IQ. Led to the 11+ exam system; later found to be based on falsified data.
31
What is an evaluation point of socially sensitive research?
Strength: Can promote greater understanding and acceptance (e.g., research on same-sex parenting).
32
What is another evaluation point of socially sensitive research?
Limitation: Risk of findings being misused by media or governments for political agendas
33
What is free will in psychology?
The idea that humans are active agents capable of making choices. A key assumption of the humanistic approach.
33
What is determinism in psychology?
The view that behaviour is shaped by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will
34
What is biological determinism?
Behaviour is governed by biological factors such as genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters.
34
What is environmental determinism?
Behaviour is shaped by environmental factors like conditioning (e.g., behaviourist approach).
35
What is psychic determinism?
Behaviour is driven by unconscious conflicts (Freud’s theory).
36
What is the idiographic approach?
Focuses on individuals and unique experiences. Often uses case studies and qualitative data.
37
What is the nomothetic approach?
Seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour. Relies on experiments and quantitative methods.
37
Give an example of an idiographic approach in psychology
Freud’s case study of Little Hans. Rich qualitative data used to explore phobias.
38
Give an example of a nomothetic approach in psychology.
Behaviourist research (e.g., Skinner’s work on operant conditioning)
39
What is holism?
Behaviour should be understood as a whole experience. Supported by the humanistic approach.
40
What is reductionism?
Breaking complex behaviour into simpler components. Includes biological, environmental, and cognitive levels of reduction.
41
What is biological reductionism
Explains behaviour through genes, neurochemicals, and biological structures.
42
What is environmental reductionism?
Behaviour explained through stimulus-response associations (e.g., classical conditioning)
42
What are some evaluation points for reductionism vs holism
Holism: Greater understanding of complex behaviours but hard to test scientifically. Reductionism: Scientific credibility and practical applications but oversimplifies behaviour.
43
What research example illustrates the negative effects of socially sensitive research?
Burt’s research into intelligence suggested IQ was inherited. It justified the 11+ exam, creating educational segregation. His data was later discredited as falsified.
44
What research supports the idea of free will?
Humanistic approach (e.g., Maslow and Rogers). Emphasises self-determination and personal responsibility
45
What research supports determinism in psychology?
Skinner’s operant conditioning experiments. Behaviour seen as controlled by reinforcement history
45
How does Freud’s theory support psychic determinism?
Behaviour is driven by unconscious childhood conflicts. Little Hans: case study illustrating phobia development from unconscious anxieties.
46
What research demonstrates the nomothetic approach?
Behaviourist studies like Pavlov’s classical conditioning research. Aimed to establish general laws of learning.
47
What research highlights biological determinism?
Twin studies on intelligence and mental health disorders. Example: Higher concordance rates for schizophrenia in identical twins.
47
What research supports environmental reductionism?
Skinner’s pigeon experiments. Demonstrated that behaviour could be broken down into simple stimulus-response units.
48
What is an example of holistic research in psychology?
Humanistic psychology. Focuses on whole person experience rather than isolating variables.
64
How have feminist psychologists proposed reducing gender bias
. Worrel - suggested criteria should be adhered to to prevent gender bias - Women should be studied with a meaningful contexts, and participate in research rather than being objects of study - diversity within groups of women in research rather than differences between men and women - greater emphasis on qualitative rather than quantitative data
65
Research relative to western cultures often focus on what
WEIRD . W westernised . E educated . I industrialised . R rich . D democratic
66
What is levels of explanation
. Different ways of viewing the same behaviour with different levels of reductionism . Highest – social and cultural explanations, most broad general and holistic as explained in terms of wide groups . Middle – psychological explanations, more specific behaviour explained as processes like cognitive processes . Lowest – biological explanations, most precise, simplest and reductionist, behaviour explained as brain structure, neurochemistry and hormones

Psychology (8 decks)

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