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american lit > gene > Flashcards

gene Flashcards

1
Q

What are two ways cells can acquire nucleotides?

A

De novo synthesis & salvage pathways

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2
Q

De novo synthesis of purines can result in the synthesis of ______ that can be converted into _______ & _______

A

Inosine Adenosine & guanosine

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3
Q

What are sources of atoms in a newly synthesized purine?

A

Amino acids: aspartate, glutamine, and glycine, methyl groups from: folic acid and carbon dioxide

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4
Q

_____ & _____ regulate de novo synthesis of purines at multiple points in the pathway

A

ADP and GDP

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5
Q

_____ & _____ can be recycled through the salvage pathway. What is the enzyme involved?

A

Hypoxanthine and guanine HGPRT (hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase)

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6
Q

_____ catalyzes a hydroxylase type reaction leading to the formation of _____ that can be excreted

A

Xanthine oxidase Uric acid

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7
Q

_____ is the cause of gout.

A

excess uric acid

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8
Q

Gout is most often caused by _____ but can also be caused by _____.

A

Low levels of secretion of uric acid Excess production

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9
Q

Crystallization of _____ in the joints leads to a localized inflammatory response.

A

Sodium urate

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10
Q

is used to treat gout. It is a _____ analog. It works by inhibiting _____ to prevent the formation of uric acid

A

Allopurinol Purine Xanthine oxidase

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11
Q

A _____ deficiency causes Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome. What are the effects of this disease?

A

HGPRT Severe retardation, crippling gouty arthritis and self-mutilation

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12
Q

Lesch-Nyhan occurs only in _____. Why?

A

males, HGPRT gene is located on the X chromosome

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13
Q

The breakdown of purines can replenish TCA intermediates through the production of _____.

A

fumarate

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14
Q

The atoms in a pyrimidine ring are derived from _____ & _____

A

Aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate

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15
Q

The first 3 enzymes in the synthesis of pyrimidines are located on _____ number of proteins.

A

One protein (CAD protein)

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16
Q

The pyrimidines _____ & _____ can be interconverted.

A

U and C

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17
Q

_____ is converted to _____ by thymidylate synthase. This enzyme requires the transfer of a methyl group from _____.

A

dUMP TMP tetrahydrofolate

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18
Q

Inhibitors of _____ production are used as therapeutic agents for treating cancer and bacterial infections.

A

tetrahydrofolate

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19
Q

_____ substituted _____ ______ that inhibit thymidylate synthase are used as anticancer agents

A

fluoro; pyrimidine analogs

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20
Q

_____ converts ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides

A

Ribonucleotide reductase

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21
Q

Base pairing in DNA is _____ to _____. In RNA it’s _____ to _____.

A

A-T and G-C A-U and G-C

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22
Q

_____ regions of DNA can be compared among different species to determine phylogenetic relationships

A

homologous

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23
Q

Closely related organisms contain _____ DNA compliments, however they are often arranged _____ on the chromosomes of each species

A

similar; differently

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24
Q

The living world is made up of 3 divisions:

A

Bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes

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25
Q

What are the 4 main processes for generating change in a genome?

A

Intragenic mutation (single base change) Gene duplication DNA segment shuffling Horizontal transfer (from one cell to another)

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26
Q

Bacterial genes are often clustered into groups called an _____ that are transcribed as a _____

A

operon; single unit

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27
Q

Eukaryotic genes are often broken up with regions of non-coding DNA called _____ between regions of coding DNA called _____

A

introns; exons

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28
Q

In a comparison of the same gene in several closely related species, the _____ will generally be very similar (conserved) while the _____ will vary in size and content.

A

exons; introns

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29
Q

Bacterial chromosomes are densely packed with _____ leaving little room for _____ DNA.

A

Genes noncoding

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30
Q

Most of the DNA in higher eukaryotes, including humans, does not code for _____. Most of the human genome is made up of _____. Many of these are _____ in the genome.

A

Proteins Repeated sequences mobile elements (can move around)

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31
Q

Bacterial chromosomes are _____. Eukaryotic chromosomes are _____.

A

circular; linear

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32
Q

In addition to the human genome, the entire genomes of a large number of organisms have been completed including several bacteria that are found in the ____ ____.

A

oral cavity

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33
Q

It is possible to construct ____ _____ and compare them with other organisms by examining their entire genome content.

A

Metabolic pathways

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34
Q

Genes can be grouped into families based on _____ sequences found in different organisms.

A

homologous

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35
Q

Homologous sequences can be found in genes of the same organisms that carry out _____ functions. Genes that have similar functions in very distantly related organisms can have _____.

A

Similar but different Homology (similar sequences)

36
Q

The _____ relationships of different organisms can be compared by comparing the DNA sequence of similar genes in the two organisms

A

phylogenetic

37
Q

DNA polymerase is a _____ dependent DNA synthesizing enzyme.

A

DNA (uses DNA as a template)

38
Q

RNA Polymerase is a _____ dependent RNA synthesizing enzyme.

A

DNA (uses DNA as a template)

39
Q

Reverse transcriptase is a _____ dependent DNA synthesizing enzyme.

A

RNA

40
Q

Primase is a _____ dependent RNA polymerase.

A

DNA

41
Q

Primase synthesizes a small _____ primer that can be used by _____ polymerase to elongate the chain.

A

RNA; DNA

42
Q

DNA polymerase minimizes the number of mistakes by using a _____ exonuclease activity that is part of the same protein.

A

3’ to 5’

43
Q

DNA polymerase, as well as all other nucleic acid polymerases, synthesize DNA in the _____direction only

A

5’ to 3’

44
Q

During replication, a new nucleotide is added to the _____ on the last nucleotide of the new DNA chain

A

3’ carbon

45
Q

The base component of each nucleotide is connected to the sugar at the _____. The adjacent nucleotides in a DNA chain are attached to the ___ and ___ carbons.

A

1’ carbon 5’ and 3’

46
Q

In pentose, how are the carbon atoms numbered? How does carbon numbering differ in RNA and DNA?

A

right to left (counterclockwise) the 2’ carbon differs between RNA and DNA

47
Q

DNA polymerase is a _____ enzyme. This means it _____ _____ synthesis. Therefore a _____ is required for elongation of a new strand using the DNA polymerase.

A

An elongating Cannot initiate primer

48
Q

Bacterial chromosomes contain _____ origin(s) of replication.

A

one

49
Q

Bacterial DNA synthesis proceeds in _____ direction away from the origin until:

A

Both directions the two replication forks meet at a specific sequence on the other side of the chromosome

50
Q

In bacteria, new rounds of DNA replication begin _____ the previous round is completed.

A

before

51
Q

Eukaryotic chromosomes contain _____ origin(s) of replication

A

many

52
Q

In eukaryotes, each chromosome is replicated _____ each cell division. New rounds of replication begin _____.

A

Only once Only after the cell divides

53
Q

Eukaryotic chromosomes are _____ and special structures called _____ are on each end.

A

linear; telomeres

54
Q

Telomeres are constructed with the enzyme _____ that uses a _____ template to synthesize a short repeated DNA sequence at the ends of chromosomes.

A

Telomerase RNA

55
Q

Because the polymerase must synthesize new DNA in the __ to ___ direction, two polymerase molecules on opposite strands move _____ from each other.

A

Away 5’ to 3’

56
Q

_____ unwinds the 2 DNA strands before polymerization of the new strands

A

helicase

57
Q

_____ proteins keep the two complementary strands from reforming a double helix

A

single-stranded binding

58
Q

The polymerase on the leading strand moves _____ the replication fork and the polymerase on the lagging strand moves _____ the fork

A

toward; away

59
Q

The lagging strand is _____ synthesized What is this called?

A

Discontinuously; okizaki fragments

60
Q

On the lagging strand, primase initiates synthesis of each _____ by making a short RNA primer

A

Okazaki fragments

61
Q

The leading strand is synthesized by the _____ movement of the DNA _____

A

continuous; polymerase

62
Q

_____ of the DNA signals that the DNA is unreplicated and is ready to be used as a _____ for the next round of synthesis

A

Methylation template

63
Q

New or modified genes can be generated by one of a combination of 4 events:

A

Point mutations in the coding region that change the amino acid composition of the protein Duplication of the entire gene Mixing segments of one gene with segments of another gene – segment shuffling Acquisition of new activities by transfer of genes between two organisms – horizontal gene transfer

64
Q

Many genes belong to families that share _____ regions.

A

homologous

65
Q

Breaks in the DNA facilitate the initiation of _____.

A

recombination

66
Q

A defect in _____, that affects joining together of adjacent segments of DNA on a chromosome, can cause abnormal amounts of recombination

A

DNA ligase

67
Q

Recombination is the _____ _____ of genetic information

A

reciprocal exchange

68
Q

Recombination can be the result of (4):

A
  1. Reciprocal exchange during cell division 2. DNA damage (Xrays) 3. Introduction of foreign DNA 4. Programed recombination during the development or maturation of a cell type (ex. Antibody producing genes during B cell maturation)
69
Q

Gene conversion is the _____ exchange of genetic information

A

non-reciprocal

70
Q

Recombination between direct repeated sequences on the same chromosome causes the _____ that was between the two repeated segments

A

loss of DNA

71
Q

Circular DNA can be inserted in a chromosome by recombination between region on a _____ ___ and a _____ region on the chromosome.

A

circular molecule; homologous

72
Q

_____ and agents that cause _____ in DNA induce recombination.

A

x-rays; breaks

73
Q

_____ _____ are found in all species from bacteria to human

A

transposable elements

74
Q

Transposable elements move from one location in the DNA to another location _____

A

within the cell

75
Q

Transposable elements can cause changes in the DNA at _____

A

site of insertion

76
Q

What are the 2 major types of transposable elements

A
  1. Contains inverted repeated sequences at the ends and causes a short region of the genome to be duplicated at the site of insertion 2. Structurally similar to a retrovirus and transposes through an RNA intermediate
77
Q

_____ _____ is a recombination that resulted from imprecise pairing of tandemly repeated sequences

A

unequal crossing over

78
Q

Unequal crossing over results in the _____ or _____ of gene copies

A

Loss or gain

79
Q

What are the 2 types of mutations

A

DNA rearrangements Base substitutions

80
Q

There are may mechanisms in each cell for _____ DNA

A

repairing

81
Q

Damage in a nucleotide can lead to _____ or _____

A

repair or permanent mutation

82
Q

What are 2 ways mutations can arise?

A

Errors during replication Injury to the DNA from chemicals or radiation

83
Q

A small fraction of every genome is made of up _____ _____ or large regions of DNA that are present in more than one copy

A

segmental duplications

84
Q

Duplicated DNA is generated by a process called _____ _____

A

gene amplification

85
Q

Gene amplification can result in 3 scenarios:

A
  1. resistance to drugs 2. transformation into cancerous cells 3. other changes in cell phenotype
86
Q

Several human diseases are due to defects in _____

A

DNA repair enzymes

american lit (6 decks)

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