Groups

Question 1

group

Answer 1

a collection of individuals that have relations to one another that make them interdependent to some degree

Question 2

Groups vary in degree of

Answer 2

1)group entitativity
2)hierarchy

Question 3

group entitativity

Answer 3

mutual interdependence and cohesion
ie:coworkers in a unit

Question 4

hierarchy:

Answer 4

arrangement of individuals in the group in terms of relative power(larger the group-> the more they tend to be hierarchical)

Question 5

Why live in groups?

Answer 5

Protections from predation human violence

Collective hunting of big game(hunting of big animals)

Cultural learning, the collective brain needs groups

Question 6

Participants were in fMRI being scanned while playing a video game(cyberball)

Answer 6

1st condition:inclusion phase(ball is being shared and passed around)
2nd conditions: exclusion phase(ball is only being passed between 2 other teammates)

When participants were excluded, greater activation of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)

Does-dependent: the more participants felt excluded, the more activation in dACC(same brain area that respond to physical pain)

Question 7

Social facilitation:

Answer 7

The effect of the presence of others on performance

Question 8

Social facilitation:

Answer 8

presence of others enhances dominant (well-practiced) response, but inhibits less-dominant (not well practiced) response

Question 9

Zajonc’s theory:

Answer 9

groups can increase/decreases performance based on certain things

Question 10

Social loafing:

Answer 10

decreased effort put forth by individuals when working in a group

Question 11

diffusion of responsibility

Answer 11

Ingham (1974) tug of war study: blindfolded participants pulled 18% harder when they thought they were alone

Question 12

Wisdom of the crowd

Answer 12

Average judgment converges on the correct solution
1)the crowd has a diversity of opinions
2)individual opinions are independent of one another
3)the crowd should be able to aggregate individual opinions into one collective decision

Question 13

Herd mentality

Answer 13

is detrimental to wise decisions and creativity and often lead to disastrous group decisions

-Aggregated information yields better and more creative solutions

-diverse views in a group weaken the confirmation bias and combine the best features of different ideas

-Diverse groups of non-experts beat even expert opinions

-As long as the individual’s judgements are independent of one another or even neg related, homogenous groups are not wise groups

Question 14

Groupthink

Answer 14

-opposite of wide crowd

social pressures to reach consensus in an highly cohesive group which leads to suboptimal decisions

Question 15

Conditions that foster groupthink

Answer 15

Stressful situation

Like minded members of group

Isolation from outside info and influence

Lack of clear procedures

Strong, authoritarian group leader

Question 16

Symptoms of group think

Answer 16

Illusion of invulnerability

Dissent is discouraged, “mindguards”

Self-censorship, illusion of unanimity

One-sided debate(collective rationalization)

Unwillingness to consider alternatives

Question 17

Strategies to reduce groupthink

Answer 17

Encourage criticism and diverse viewpoints

Input from outside sources

Generate different ideas, approaches before decisions is made

Watch out for illusion of invulnerability

Question 18

Bias and discrimination has been steadily declining

Answer 18

Implicit attitudes for (sexuality, race,skin tone) decline

Implicit attitude for age and disability hasn’t changed that much, body weight seems to increase

Least change: Age attitudes 22% decline(explicit attitude)

Most change: race attitudes 98% decline(explicit attitude)

Decline in attitude change in conservatives and liberals for sexuality, race, but not much for age

Question 19

The ABC of intergroup Relations

Answer 19

Prejudice (affect):
Discrimination(behavior):
Stereotypes(cognition

Question 20

Prejudice (affect):

Answer 20

a negative attitude or affective response towards a certain group and its individual members

Question 21

Discrimination(behavior):

Answer 21

negative behavior towards members of a particular group based on their membership in that group

Question 22

Stereotypes(cognition)

Answer 22

beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of members of particular groups

Question 23

Distal explanations: Evolutionary explanations of ingroupishness

Answer 23

1)parochial altruism
2)pathogen avoidance

Question 24

Evolutionary account #1: parochial altruism

Answer 24

Endemic intergroup warfare in ancestral environments

Intergroup psychology evolved to be in-groupish-small, cohesive, cooperative but mutually hostile bands

Innate dual tendency for 1)altruism towards ingroup AND 2)hostility towards outgroup- we are a clique-sh species
“Us vs them thinking” or coalitional psychology

But what counts as ingroup vs outgroup is flexible, socially constructed

Explains why the content of prejudice can be different across time and place, but us vs them mentality tends to be more resilient

Question 25

Evolutionary account #2: pathogen avoidance

Answer 25

In ancestral environments, strangers were potential sources of novel pathogens for which immune defense is unprepared Studies show that 1)areas with high pathogen prevalence -> more ingroupish(more awareness of strangers) 2)more fear of pathogens -> more prejudice and stronger immune reaction Participants exposed to germs slide show had higher funding for familiar countries and less for foreign countries

Question 26

Cultural explanations of ingroup-outgroup favoritism

Answer 26

Cultural dissimilarity-dislike Conversely similarity and familiarity= liking People felt the most positive towards groups that: 1) were geographically nearer 2)culturally most similar to themselves

Question 27

Multiculturalism vs Culture-blindness

Answer 27

Belief in the value of multiculturalism is associated with less ethnocentrism (Ryan et al, 2007) Adoption of multicultural outlook improves intergroup relations and improves experiences of disadvantage groups (Vorauer, Gagnon, and Sasaki, 2009)

Question 28

Proximal Explanations(suggest interventions to reduce prejudice)

Answer 28

Socioeconomic explanations: Realistic Group Conflict theory Motivational perspective (back to rationalization) Cognitive perspective

Question 29

Socioeconomic explanations: Realistic Group Conflict theory

Answer 29

Group conflict, prejudice and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited desired resources Groups who perceive themselves to be at most risk of another group’s advance are more prejudiced(eg.: working class people resenting immigrants who might compete for the same jobs) High unemployment and economic recession=more anti-immigrant attitudes

Question 30

The Robbers Cave experiment(Sherif) (realistic group conlfict theory)

Answer 30

Summer camp in oklahoma Introduced competition and intergroup conflict Reducing intergroup conflict through superordinate goals

Question 31

Superordinate goals

Answer 31

:goals that transcend the interested of one individual group, and that can be achieved more readily by 2 or more groups working together

Question 32

Earthquake diplomacy”(superordinate goals)

Answer 32

Turkey and Greece never had good relations, but earthquake in both areas led to diplomacy between the two

Question 33

The Jigsaw Classroom (superorindate goals)

Answer 33

Students separated into diverse six-person learning groups Lesson divided into 6 parts Each part is required to complete the whole lesson Each student learns one piece then teaches the group They need each other to do well on test Prejudice goes down

Question 34

Minimal Group experiments (Tajfel and turner)(you can create ingroup bias without conflict)

Answer 34

participants are assigned to groups on meaningless criteria Do u like Klee or Kandinsky painting more -Divided into Klee or Kandinsky group based on choice -Then they are given money/incentive to be able to give to anyone(ie in you ingroup or other group) People are more biased to people in their group Can not be explained by realistic conflict theory

Question 35

Motivational perspective (back to rationalization)

Answer 35

Threats to the self: prejudice and discrimination can arise from various threats to the self: lack of control,randomness, reminders of mortality, loss of self-esteem System justification:prejudice and discrimination can arise when people are motivated to justify the broad socio political system of which they are part, rationalizing injustice and inequality experienced by groups; blaming disadvantaged groups

Question 36

Cognitive perspective

Answer 36

Implicit and explicit stereotypes and prejudice

Question 37

implicit attitudes:

Answer 37

thoughts that are outside of conscious awareness

Question 38

Primed stereotypes(implicit)

Answer 38

procedure used to increase the accessibility of a concept or scheme

Question 39

Implicit association test (IAT)(implicit)

Answer 39

measures unconscious stereotypes and prejudices toward particular groups

Question 40

Implicit and explicit stereotypes and prejudice

Answer 40

Implicit and explicit attitudes are uncorrelated Implicit attitudes matter for discrimination especially when cognitive resources are taxed, fatigued, time pressure, or when motivation appears to be unbiased Explicit attitudes matter for discrimination when conscious reflection is possible/desirable

Question 41

The contact hypothesis in Iraq

Answer 41

Participants were christian minorities in iraq that were persecuted Randomly assigned them to play soccer in a mixed group of christian and muslims or just christians If participants trained with muslim players, they were more likely to view muslims more favorable (vote muslim for an award, and more likely to sign up for mixed team again, and visit mosuls, attend mixed events, and donate mixed NGO)

Question 42

Evidence based intervention strategies to reduce prejudice and conflict

Answer 42

Superordinate goals Superordinate identity Unlearning implicit associations Perceived similarity between groups multiculturalism(diversity) as a cultural value Contact: positive,equal-status contact involving one-on-one interactions.

Question 43

Benefits of Diverse groups

Answer 43

More creativity, better decisions Cultural role models take down stereotypes and facilitate positive social change Rectify past imbalances and injustices Powerful antidote against prejudice(positive contact)

Question 44

ingredients for postiive contact

Answer 44

Ingredients: Equal-status Positive atmosphere Superordinate goals and identity Community support (supportive cultural norms)

Question 45

Challenges of diverse groups

Answer 45

Social interactions are less smooth There is lower levels of trust and more concerns about disrespect Greater perceived interpersonal conflict Less social cohesion

Answer 46

More diverse countries are not more prone to internal conflict, unless social fractionalization(how diverse a country is) is territorial

Question 47

Three cultural models of interpersonal relationships

Answer 47

dignity culture face cultures honor culture

Question 48

The culture of honor

Answer 48

A culture defined by its member’s strong concerns about their own and other’s reputations, leading to sensitivity to insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong

Question 49

southerner vs northerners

Answer 49

Investigators present several lines of evidence indicating that when their honor is slighted, southerners are more likely than northerners to respond with aggression White males from the south show more facial expressions of anger, elevated testosterone, firmer grip, and greater hostility after an insult that white males from north There are higher rates of homicide in southern states due to arguments than in the north

Question 50

White male homicide offender rates:

Answer 50

Rates of felony-related murders are similar in non south and south/south-west regions of the US but argument related murderers are much more common in US south and Southwest than in other regions of the US

Question 51

Cultural meaning

Answer 51

same situation may have diff cultural meanings,eliciting diff emotions

Question 52

cultural meaning expeiremnt among southern and northern

Answer 52

Southern and northern participants walking down the hall were insulted(called an asshole) They measure testosterone levels after the insult, southern participants had increase of T levels

Question 53

Inclusive fitness

Answer 53

According to evolutionary biology, the fitness of an individual based on reproductive success and the passing on of genes to future generations

Question 54

Violence in stepfamilies

Answer 54

Natural selection rewards those parents who devote resources to their own offspring

Question 55

Violence in stepfamilies:mistreated stepchildren

Answer 55

Studies found that children in canada were 70 times more likely to be killed by a step parents than by biological parents and children in america 100 times more likely

Question 56

Gender difference in types of aggression

Answer 56

Large gender difference in violent crime rates Men much more likely to be involved in violent and criminal behavior Long history of violence against women Men also more likely to be victims of violence Possibly due to combo of difference in hormone levels, cultural learning, and evolved psychology **Men may be more physically aggressive, but women are more emotionally aggressive

Question 57

Communication and reconciliation

Answer 57

Often in heat of conflict or aftermath of aggression, the adversaries tend to stop communication, to separate themselves from one another This tendency to avoid adversaries flies in the face of one of the most potent tools for reducing conflict:face-to-face communication As adversaries communicate, they often show a powerful tendency to reconcile, to made amends for hurtful words and harmful acts

Question 58

Moving toward a less violent world

Answer 58

The world has become substantially more interconnected:our interests are more intertwined with those of people from other communities and nations Cultural norms are changing in favor of more peaceful relations We are enjoying one of the least violent most cooperative periods in human history There are fewer wars, and fewer casualties of war Murder rate have fallen drastically in most western countries as well as E. Asian countries

Question 59

dignity cultures

Answer 59

inherit self-worth authenticity is virtue individualistic cultures,US less hierarchical, strong rule of law

Question 60

face cultures

Answer 60

socially conferred self-worth determined by performing social obligations modesty and harmony are a virtue Confucian cultures, east asia stable social hierarchies

Question 61

honor cultures

Answer 61

socially conferred self worth by social image of toughness defense of ones reputation Mediterranean, latin, tribal unstable social hierarchy