Henry VIII Flashcards
(283 cards)
1
Q
When did Henry become King?
A
In 1509, King Henry VII died and his son, Henry VIII, ascended to the throne. About nine weeks later, under the impetus of Spain, Henry married Catherine of Aragon.
2
Q
Who was Catherine?
A
Catherine was previously married to Henry VIII’s brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales. However, Arthur died of sweating sickness only a few months later. Therefore, they never consummated their marriage. Considering Catherine’s circumstances, Pope Julius II and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Warham, doubted the validity of this union and allowed the marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine.
3
Q
When did they get married?
A
The coronation ceremony was held in Westminster Abbey on 24 June 1509 and the marriage strengthened the Anglo-Spanish alliance against France.
4
Q
What was Henry’s personality?
A
He was known as a jovial and chivalrous king who possessed great knowledge of the humanities. He always wanted to impress others and to stand out. According to some, he was charming and interesting.
5
Q
What was Henry’s education?
A
He could speak fluent Latin, French and Spanish. He also had a genuine interest in theology thanks to the strong religious education he received during his childhood. In fact, before he became the heir to the throne, Henry was destined for an ecclesiastical career.
6
Q
What was Henry’s skills?
A
He was a true Renaissance man and was gifted in many areas. He was a very talented musician and composer. He wrote poetry and his dancing skills were notable.
7
Q
What was Henry’s tasks?
A
He loved eating, drinking and hunting. Since he felt the need to make a good impression on everyone around him, Henry lived in lavish abundance: his court was decorated with expensive artwork and furniture. He felt the need to be second to none.
8
Q
What was Henry’s religion?
A
He was Catholic. Although he separated from the Church of Rome and the papal authority, Henry VIII remained a fervent Catholic.
9
Q
What is the Character of Henry VIII like?
A
- king at 17, prepared for role
- well educated (including some humanism0
- early impression was positive and he was welcomed with breath of fresh air (due to sinister atmosphere of Empson + Dudley)
- Henry had no experience of government/public affairs, disliked it and found it tedious (different to Henry VII). He could intervene in business of government if he wished (this approach did have implications for the quality of decision-making within Henry’s administration)
- lacked work ethic, preferred to spend time with good company (e.g. emphasis on sports/hunting/tournaments)
10
Q
How was Henry VIII’s structure of government different to his father?
A
- short term there was renewed emphasis on governing through council, which made 2 comebacks at later stage of reign (1529-1532, 1540-1547)
- Henry relied on work of chief minister who shaped structures of government to meet his own needs- Thomas Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell
11
Q
What was Henry VIII left with?
A
Henry VIII left with:
- money (around £300,000)
- unpopular mechanisms for extracting money
- peaceful foreign policy
- a conciliar form of government (decisions made through a council)
these all disappeared due to aggressive foreign policy towards French and Wolsey becoming the focus of government.
12
Q
What were the changes in Henry VIII’s council?
A
Changes in council:
- Richard Fox, assisted by Sir Thomas Lovell and Richard Weston, secured arrest of Empson and Dudley (they were executed shortly after)
- Council Learned in Law abolished by Act of Parliament in January 1510
with abolition of Council Learned, executions Empson and Dudley, Henry distanced himself from father’s regime + ensured his own popularity with nobility/classes who considered themselves as victims of his father’s taxation
13
Q
What were Henry’s Early Aims?
A
- establish his status amongst European monarchs through marriage
- to re-establish the role of the nobility
- to establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle
14
Q
How did Henry establish his status amongst European monarchs through marriage?
A
Marriage to Catherine of Aragon:
- had not been agreed till after Henry VII death
- Henry VIII wanted to conclude marriage quickly, which suited Henry’s councillors (they felt the marriage would deflect Henry from political matters so they could continue conciliar business as usual)
- marriage occurred 11th June 1509
- successful on personal level + Catherine exercised some influence over policy making in first few years
- by mid 1520s took turn for worse, Henry would repent marriage to a women 5 years older and who would not give him a male heir
15
Q
How did Henry re-establish the role of the nobility?
A
Re-establishing the Nobility:
- largely frozen out by Henry VII (little time at court, little military glory due to peace)
- Henry VIII shared tastes/military culture of the aristocracy and it was largely the sons of the nobility who partnered Henry in sports/accompanied Henry in some wars (e.g. France)
- However, nobles did not achieve the political domination they had hoped for due to Henry promoting interests of Wolsey, the churchman who had organised the war in France on his behalf
16
Q
How did Henry establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle?
A
Foreign Policy:
- sought quickly to overthrow father’s foreign policy legacy
- pursuit of military glory/rehabilitating nobility led to war in France (recur regularly through reign, usually with large money spent and minimal gains/rewards)
- bouts of aggression were mixed with occasional alliances with French against Spain/Holy Roman Empire, though Henry never went to war with Spain/powerful Charles V
17
Q
Henry’s Later Aims
A
- first 5 years reign: celebrated his marriage, coronation, victory over Scots (destroyed father’s legacy through warfare/extravagance)
- for most part little interested in business of government except on occasional and impulsive basis
- reign leave mark due to: broadening use of Acts of Parliament to achieve political goals, growing importance Parliament, destruction traditional religion/plundering church wealth
- did show some impulsiveness: execution Empson and Dudley, speed of marriage to Catherine of Aragon, execution of Thomas Cromwell
18
Q
When did Henry come to the throne?
A
Henry VII came to the throne in 1509, two months before his 18th birthday
19
Q
When did Henry marry Catherine?
A
One of Henry’s first acts was to marry Catherine of Aragon - his brother’s widow - 11th of June 1509
20
Q
What were the aims of Henry VIII?
A
Conquer foreign - France
Gain popularity with the people
To re-establish the role of the nobility
Establish his status amongst European monarchs through marriage
Re-establish himself as a warrior and king through success in battle
To be a glorious warrior
Keep scotland under control
Succession - ensure the continuation of the tudor dynasty
21
Q
Upbringing and work ethic
A
Only experienced wealth, expectation and a multitude of doting servants and loving parents and siblings
Lost his brother and mother
Privileged upbringing
Found state business tedious
Lacked the work ethic of his rather
Participated in activities such as hunting and jousting
22
Q
Nobility
A
Very generous with his nobles
Running a lavish court and bestowing generous gifts upon favourites
King and novels frequently interacted in court due to the various activities often occurring e.g hunting, tennis, jousting
Suspicious of rivals
23
Q
Style of government
A
Continues to use JPs
Reiled more on delegation
Walsey and Cromwell
24
Q
Popular appeal
A
Intastly bombarded with complaints following his fathers reign
Abolished council learned
Executed Empson and Dudley
25
When did henry become king?
21st April 1509 - henry VIII becomes king of England
26
When was his reign
1509 - 1547 - reign of King Henry VIII
27
Key people
Thomas Lovell - chancellor of the exchequer
Bishop fox - lord privy seal
Archbishop Warham
28
Before 1530s- Parliament
- two main functions: to grant extraordinary revenue to the crown, and to pass laws
- parliament could advise monarch
- before 1529 Henry VIII only summoned parliaments in 1510, 1512, 1515 and 1523
- during Wolsey time, parliament only called once
- first part of reign, primary reason = to secure revenue
- second half of reign, Cromwell exploited its legislative possibilities, parliament met much more frequently
- governance via councils broke down due to conflict between king's impulsive personality/conservative councillors. Thomas Wolsey provided effective management of government.
29
Wolsey + end of government by councils
- conciliar approach to government = 1509-1514, several factors combined to bring it to end:
1) Henry became disenchanted with the reluctance of some of his father's senior councillors to support war with France
2) increasingly asserting his control in decision making
3) Henry surrounded himself with like minded courtiers who reinforced his suspicions of the 'old guard'
4) impressed by organisational skills of Wolsey (contribution to effective management of the French campaign = royal gratitude)
- in end, Wolsey emerged as dominant political figure. Had the uncanny ability to give king what he wanted
- Wolsey's influence was derived more from the closeness of his relationship with the king than from formal positions he held (he complemented the king's 'hands off' approach to details of policy making)
- Wolsey main concerns: legal system, formulation domestic policy, political decision making
30
Privy Chamber
- before 1519, lay outside Wolsey's immediate control
- established during Henry VII reign, but role was extended to Henry VIII's reign, where a group of young courtiers became Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
- they distrusted Wolsey, who set himself the task of removing the courtiers and replaced them with his own supporters. Most courtiers managed to recover their positions
- Privy Chamber retained some prestige/influence, one part of government outside of Wolsey's immediate control
31
Domestic Policies under Wolsey (1515-1529)- Court of Chancery
- as Lord Chancellor he oversaw the legal system
- tried to use the court to uphold 'fair' justice (e.g. deal with problems relating to enclosure)
- main problem = too popular, justice slow
32
Domestic Policies under Wolsey (1515-1529)- Court of Star Chamber
-established by Act of Parliament in 1487, as an offshoot of the King's Council, centre of both government/justice under Wolsey
- motive for extending use of Star Chamber from 1516: increase cheap and fair justice
- encouraged use of chamber for private lawsuits, but too successful, so forced to set up a series of 'overflow tribunals' to deal with pressure of business
33
Domestic Policies under Wolsey (1515-1529)- Finance: The Tudor Subsidy
Finance- The Tudor Subsidy:
- Wolsey did not invent the subsidy, however he did make change in the way subsidies were collected
- instead of using local commissioners to access taxpayers wealth (with the risk that they would be over-generous to the local nobility), Wolsey set up a national committee which he headed
- Wolsey was able to raise extraordinary revenue for Henry VIII's war in France, though the amount was insufficient, so Wolsey attempted to raise unparliamentary taxation through 'Amicable Grant' of 1525 = resistance and nearly rebellion
34
Domestic Policies under Wolsey (1515-1529)- Finance: The Eltham Ordinances
- introduced in 1526 by Wolsey to reform the finances of the Privy Council
- in the guise of pushing forward proposals for a reduction of royal household expenditure, Wolsey secured a reduction in the number of the Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber, the one area of government over which he did not have control
- secured the removal of Henry's Groom of the Stool
35
The King's Great Matter
- Henry required Wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine (due to being worried for succession/wanting to marry Anne Boleyn) = major problem
- in all probability Henry himself who found the biblical justification to form the basis of an annulment, the book of Leviticus contained a prohibition on a man marrying his brother's widow. As Catherine had been briefly mentioned to Henry's brother Arthur, Henry argued that the papal dispensation issued by Julius II to permit his marriage was invalid. He claimed in God's eyes his marriage was still illegal and that he was therefore free to marry again.
- Catherine claimed her marriage to Prince Arthur was never consummated and the ban did not work. Henry insisted that Wolsey seek a dispensation for annulment anyway.
- 1527, Wolsey used his power as the personal representative of the Pope to bring Henry before a fake court to 'accuse' him of living in sin with his supposed wife, a fault which Henry admitted. Catherine refused to accept the court's verdict and appealed to the Pope
36
The Fall of Wolsey
- after 2 years of fruitless diplomacy (1527-1529) the Pope sent an envoy, Cardinal Campeggio, to hear the case along with Wolsey. Adjourned on 30th July, Wolsey had failed to give Henry an annulment
- Wolsey's fall was not unexpected, he was already unpopular for forcing the 1523 subsidy through Parliament/imposing Amicable Grant
- 1529 he was charged with praemunire and surrendered himself, it was the intention to try + execute him, but he died before
37
Domestic Policy under Cromwell (1532-1540)
- Cromwell suggested Henry make a break from Rome and place himself as head of an English church
- brought 3 years of conciliar government to an end
- under Cromwell the role of the royal household diminished, Privy Council assumed a significant role in managing government/Parliament grew in importance
- divorce/ break with Rome accomplished through the use of statute law (Acts of Parliament), whose supremacy over canon law (law of the Church) was firmly established
- weakening of Church made Cromwell's task easier (e.g. weakened by humanism
38
Acts of Parliament (1533-1534)
The Act in Restraint of Appeals- drafted by Cromwell, founded on the evidence of Collectanea. The preamble to the act declared that the monarch possessed an imperial jurisdiction which was not subject to any foreign power (e.g. papacy). Act meant appeals could not be made to Rome
The Act of Succession- declared: Henry marriage to Catherine = void, succession should be vested in the children in his marriage to Anne, to deny the validity of Henry's marriage to Anne was treasonable, an oath should be taken to affirm an individual's acceptance of the new marriage
The Act of Supremacy- legislative force to the royal supremacy. This act effectively accomplished the break from Rome
The Treason Act- tightened so that treason could be committed by the spoken word as well as by deed or writing and so that it was treasonable to describe the king as 'heretic'
The Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths to the Crown- the Annates paid by a bishop, which had been 'intolerable' when paid to the Pope, now became perfectly acceptable when paid to the king. Increased financial burden on the clergy, and strengthened the royal supremacy
By 1934, relationship between England and Rome = smashed to pieces. Royal supremacy over the Church has been created.
39
The Fall of Thomas Cromwell
- by 1540, Thomas Cromwell's influence = declining
- catalyst for downfall: failure to manage the king's marital affairs satisfactorily
- he tried to pair Henry with a marriage, but it was unhappy (both politically/personally). Marriage annulled, destroying Cromwell's credibility
- this gave Cromwell enemies
40
Government in Henry VIII's Last Years (1540-1547)
- fall of Cromwell saw the emergence of a Privy Council with fixed membership
- argument over power of king: on one hand = seen as firmly in control, seen by some as weak/prey to factions that existed in court
- in 1540, power lay with conservatives e.g. Stephen Gardiner
41
Political Rivalries/ Death of Henry VIII
- as health declined, political rivalries intensified
- Norfolk was not able to stay at top, and remained prisoner in the Tower for the whole of Edward VI's reign
42
What were the years of Henry VIII's reign?
1509-1547
43
Who was Henry VIII's first wife?
Catherine of Aragon
44
Why was Henry VIII's first marriage potentially controversial?
Catherine of Aragon was his brother's widow.
45
Who was Henry VIII's second wife?
Anne Boleyn
46
Who annulled Henry VIII's first marriage and conducted his second?
Thomas Cranmer
47
In what year did Henry VIII marry his second wife?
1533
48
Who was Henry VIII's eldest child, and who was their mother?
Mary - Catherine of Aragon
49
Who was Henry VIII's second child, and who was their mother?
Elizabeth - Anne Boleyn
50
Who was Henry VIII's third wife, whom he married in 1536?
Jane Seymour
51
Who was Henry VIII's third child, and who was their mother?
Edward - Jane Seymour
52
Who arranged Henry VIII's fourth marriage? Why did he do it?
Thomas Cromwell - to secure relations with the Protestant League of Schmalkalden
53
Who was Henry VIII's fourth wife and when did he marry her?
Anne of Cleves - 1540
54
Who was Henry VIII's fifth wife?
Catherine Howard
55
Who was Henry VIII's sixth wife?
Catherine Parr
56
What did the Succession Act of 1544 do?
It restored Mary and Elizabeth to the succession and it allowed Henry to set out his own succession plans in his will.
57
What did Henry VIII's Will say about the succession after his death?
That it should go to Edward, then Mary, then Elizabeth, then the Greys.
58
How did Henry VIII reassure people that he wouldn't govern like his father?
Empson and Dudley were executed and the Council Learned was abolished in 1510.
59
What body ran Henry VIII's government at the start of his reign?
The Council
60
Why did Henry VIII come to dislike his Council?
Because of the number of older councillors on it who had also served his father and who disapproved of Henry's ambitions to invade France.
61
When did Thomas Wolsey come to Henry VIII's attention?
When he organised Henry's military campaign in France in 1513.
62
When did Wolsey become Henry VIII's chief minister?
1514
63
To what office was Wolsey appointed? What did this give him control over?
Lord Chancellor - The Court of Chancery.
64
How did Wolsey increase the number of cases heard by the Court of Star Chamber?
From 300 during Henry VII's reign to 1,685 during Wolsey's period of dominance.
65
How did Wolsey use Star Chamber?
To enforce his government, and to try his opponents for crimes if they threatened to do something he disliked.
66
How did Wolsey make the Subsidy a more effective tax?
He set up a national committee to assess the wealth of Henry VIII's subjects.
67
Why did the Amicable Grant of 1525 make people so angry?
It was an effort to raise a tax despite Parliament's refusal to allow Henry VIII to do so.
68
What did the Eltham Ordinances of 1526 achieve?
They reduced the number of Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber in Henry VIII's household.
69
How did Wolsey attempt to solve the King's Great Matter?
He tried to get the Pope to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
70
How did Wolsey's efforts to solve the King's Great Matter fail?
In 1529 Cardinal Campeggio arrived in London to hear the case on the Pope's behalf but soon adjourned the case.
71
What marked the end of Wolsey's career as Henry VIII's Chief Minister?
He was charged with Praemunire in 1529.
72
When did Thomas Cromwell become Henry VIII's Chief Minister?
1532
73
What did Thomas Cromwell propose as a solution to the King's Great Matter?
He suggested Henry break from Rome and place himself at the head of a new independent Church of England.
74
How did Thomas Cromwell govern?
He used Parliament to govern. He created new statute law in order to change how the Kingdom functioned.
75
When did the Reformation Parliament sit?
1529-1536
76
What did the Act in Restraint of Appeals of 1533 state?
That English subjects could not make appeals to the Pope.
77
What did the Act of Supremacy of 1534 state?
That the King of England was the Supreme Head of the Church of England.
78
What did the Treason Act of 1534 state?
That treason could now be committed by the spoken word as well as by deed or writing.
79
What event enabled Cromwell's enemies at Court to get rid of him?
Henry VIII's marriage to Anne of Cleves, which was quickly annulled.
80
What body ran Henry VIII's government at the end of his reign?
Privy Council
81
How did the Privy Council work?
Individual ministers took responsibility for different areas of government, and the Privy Council met regularly to manage the business of government.
82
Who were the three leading Conservatives who dominated the Privy Council after Cromwell's fall?
Duke of Norfolk, Stephen Gardiner and Thomas Wriothesley.
83
What did the Dry Stamp, adopted in 1545, allow the Privy Council to do?
To imprint documents with Henry VIII's signature, so the Privy Council could issue documents without Henry having to sign them himself.
84
Who had risen to prominence on the Privy Council by the end of Henry VIII's reign?
Edward Seymour, brother of Jane Seymour and therefore Prince Edward's uncle.
85
Who were the main people in henrys reign?
Two main people in Henry VIII’s reign: Wolsey, Cromwell
86
Background of cardinal wolsey
Son of a butcher - not born into a noble family
Became the richest and most powerful man in England - except for the King
At the height of his influence - his word was almost seen as law
His court rivalled the king’s in size and splendour
Alter rex
Religious route
87
Character - what kind of man was Wolsey?
Gained his first degree at 15 - Oxford
He possessed the drive and confidence necessary to seize the opportunities that came his way
Wolsey was seemingly afraid of nothing and was prepared to take calculated risks where appropriate
He could flatter outrageously whilst at the same time making himself welcome as an interesting and attractive companion
Wolsey could be relied upon to carry out whatever task was entrusted to him with skill and application
Thrived on hard work
88
How did Wolsey rise to prominence?
Came to the king’s attention as a man of business working for Bishop Fox
Was appointed as a royal councillor
Gave the king advice he wanted to hear - gained Henry’s approval
Wolsey organised an expeditionary force to invade France
89
Cardinal Wolsey’s career
1509 - royal almoner
1510 - royal councillor
1513 - archbishop of york
1515 - cardinal and lord chancellor
1518 - papal legate
90
Positions in the church - how did Wolsey acquire so much power?
Held the informal position of King’s chief minister
91
Dean
Henry appointed him as dean - small promotion but easy
92
Bishop
Henry used his influence to get wolsey this promotion
93
Cardinal
Henry built a campaign to exert pressure on the pope and Wolsey was appointed in 1515
94
Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham
Buckingham had known great success under Henry VII, and by the time of the old King’s death he was the only duke in the realm
He was related to the Yorkist family
95
Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk
Suffolk was henry’s close personal friend and favourite jousting partner
Large, handsome and athletic, he and the king shared much in common
96
Archbishop Warham and bishop fox
Warham and dox had been the two key administrators in English government since 1500 having started their careers under Henry VII
They both had long and distinguished career
97
Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk
Surrey had worked his way up in Henry VII’s favour after Bosworth and had earned his Dukedom for the new king by leading the English Army to victory at Flodden
98
Buckingham
In 1510, it was found out that Henry was sleeping with Buckingham’s sister
Buckingham sends his sister to a convent
Buckingham forgives Henry -> Henry lets him rule over Wales
1518: strips him of this position
Buckingham underestimated Henry’s paranoia of those who had a link with old Royals
Wolsey planted false evidence of accusations of treason against Buckingham
1521: Buckingham is executed
99
Suffolk
Sufflok was instructed by Henry to exhort his sister Mary back to England
Mary fell in love with Suffolk and the feeling was mutual
They secretly married during the journey home - conducted their marriage without Henry’s permission, and this count amount to treason
Wolsey offed Suffolk to act as a go-between with Henry and negotiate on the young couple’s behalf
Henry forgave both his friend and his sister
However, Suffolk was now indebted to Wolsey and was unlikely to stand in the way of the Cardinal’s rapid rise
100
Warham and Fox
Neither Warham and Fox were particularly inclined to stand in the way of Wolsey’s rise to power
Indeed fox, gave Wolsey his patronage and helping him up the ladder of power in the early years
Warham resigned his post as lord chancellor in 1515 (promptly taken by Wolsey) and focused instead on his role as Archbishop of Canterbury. Fox similarly resigned from his role as Lord Privy Seal in 1516 and focused his energies on his bishopric of Winchester. Neither would play an active role in government again.
101
Thomas Howard
Had the experience and position to be Henry’s chief adviser, but he was frustrated to see Wolsey be more successful in securing the King’s ear
Foolishly, Howard was too vocal in expressing his dissatisfaction
In 1512, he argued with Henry about the favouritism shown to Wolsey and was ordered to leave court
Henry still valued Howard and entrusted him with the command of the English army at the battle of Flodden in 1513. Surrey’s victory convinced Henry to make him the Duke of Norfolk in 1514
Norfolk failed to convince Henry to not go through with Wolsey’s plan of marrying his sister to King Louis XII of France
Henry tried to placate Howard by giving him the honour of escorting Mary to her new husband
While there, Howard’s temper got the better of him again - he dismissed Mary’s ladies-in-waiting - turning the young princess against him, who increasingly showed her favour to Wolsey
By 1515, Howard had realised that it was hopeless to stand against Wolsey. He changed tack and co-operated with the cardinal.
102
Why was Wolsey able to get the upper hand over his rivals?
Wolsey was able to get the upper hand over his rivals in a number of different ways: through manipulation, calculating, tactics and appeasing the king and order to remain in his favour. For example, when it transferred that Henry had been sleeping with Buckingham’s sister, Wolsey began to play on the king’s paranoia that Buckingham could be plotting against him. Although at first Henry and Buckingham made up, with Henry even giving him authority over Wales, Wolsey planted false evidence to suggest that Buckingham, was planning treason against the King. Although likely not true, Buckingham was executed in 1512, which shows that Wolsey successfully deceived the king in order to eliminate a key threat to his position as Key Rex.
103
Invasion of France 1511-1512
Heavily influenced and guided by Ferdinand or Aaragon - decided on invading France
Spent a lot of money - very little achieved and demoralised troops
Estimated power of France
Believed Ferdinand would support him, but when Ferdinand pulls out, Henry is left alone and isolated, - suggesting that Henry did not have the correct support or supplies to attack France
Henry lost all the money that his dad had saved
104
Battle of Bony 1513
Sent a second force to France - allied with the holy roman empire
Great victory for the English
Gave herny much-needed victory after previous French failures
Henry married his sister Mary to Louis Xii of France in 1514 - cementing victory
Gained Therounne and Tournai - couldn't use these to launch further invasions and he had neither an army nor money, and they were rather Insignificant parts of the land.
Secured himself an annual income from the French.
High costs of campaigns as he spent £960,000 in 1511-13
In 1514 reality of finances put pressure on the alliance with France.
Laying claim to his inherited title of King of France - Henry gained prestige and standing - The desire to reclaim the title King of France was unrealistic and borne more of the Renaissance prince than of any reality based in international affairs.
By the end of The Battle of Bony, Henry had stamped his mark on European affairs and showed he was a Renaissance monarch different from his father.
105
Battle of Flodden 1513
James IV decided to attack
Henry ripped up perpetual peace when he came to the throne
The battle was a major success for Henry - James IV and most of the Scottish nobility died
Scotland neutralised.
Henry lacked the finance and manpower necessary for a foreign policy borne of strength.
Military adventures in 1513 (Battle of the Spurs, Flodden) were very costly and Henry was forced to liquidate assets inherited from his father to pay for it.
By the end of 1514, Henry had run out of money but continued a warlike foreign policy.
106
Treaty of London 1518
Europe monarchs and the pope - personally invited by Wolsey
Wanted to maintain peace with one another and help each other
Placed a great emphasis on England being a major power - made England look more important and influential than
Worsey was able to make Henry seem like a big deal.
Peace was not achieved - no long-term success
Treaty of London: Wolsey ended England's isolation and emerged as the leading diplomat in western Europe.
107
Field of Cloth of Gold 1520
Grand European festival - 18 days of feasts, tournaments
Aim: improve relations between the two great rival kingdoms
Henry made him and Francis wrestle - Henry lost and became humiliated
Wolsey was able to capitalise and orchestrate a hugely symbolic gathering and meeting between Francis and Henry - showcasing Wolsey to be an effective diplomat for Henry
Helped show Henry's dominance and their way to being successful (only 20)
Good showcase to try and put the Tudor dynasty on the map
"brought Henry honour and prestige"
huge economic burden as £40,000 was spent with very little actually achieved - looks silly and immature.
cracks in the friendship between England and France soon started to appear
made tensions between the two worse as they were both trying to outdo one another
108
Alliance with the HRE and the Treaty of Bruges 1521
Wolsey negotiated this with Charles V - reduce the power of France in Italy
Decided that England would invade France unless Francis made peace with the HRE.
Overconfident aim - but could Wolsey be trying to scare Francis or buy time?
Did Henry achieve his aims - or was it, Wolsey? - Henry relied heavily on others which can be seen when he had to pull out of France due to Ferdinand
Family ties within this alliance and he wanted to prevent a trade embargo from Charles - controlled the Low Countries.
Treaty would give him a powerful alliance and would give him the potential to launch another attempt to gain territory in France.
Agreed to fight France unless they made peace - a win-win situation for Henry.
Very little success as it resulted in English troops invading northern France in 1522-23.
Francis did not listen - England would have to attack.
The attack never launched - Wolsey and Bourbon not following through
Wolsey wasted £400,000 on preparations.
Crushing defeat.
Henry did not have the correct support or supplies to attack France
Henry lost a lot of money
Failure for Wolsey - Wolsey was secretly looking for a peace deal by 1524
Bad for public taxes
109
Battle of Pavia 1525
A decisive victory for Charles V - capturing his rival, Francis - forced him to agree to Habsburg control of northern Italy and Burgundy.
Henry aimed to capitalise on this - wanted Charles to divide France between England and the Habsburgs.
Charles said nope - wouldn't bring him to benefit and England's military weakness had been exposed by the invasions of 1522 and 1523
Led to the Amicable Grant - failed to raise the funds, once again showing England's weaknesses as a country and opening them up to attacks
Wolsey's reputation to become damaged
Charles refused to support Wolsey as a papal candidate.
This prompted Henry to move toward an alliance with Francis.
- The Battle of Pavia 1525 marked an improvement in Anglo-Scottish relations. Subsequent improvement in relations with France had a positive effect on relations with Scotland.
-Although it technically was a defeat, some good came from this event.
-Until Pavia, English policy was essentially anti-French; after Pavia, an Anglo-French entente was constructed in the Treaty of Amiens (1527) and the countries were at peace until the Third French War (1543).
110
Treaty of More 1525.
Henry agreed he would give up any claims in France if he were to receive an annual pension.
Iit is arguable that his claims within France were more valuable than an annual pension.
Allowed him to build a friendship with France and receive an annual pension.
111
Treaty of Cognac 1526
Francis was humiliated by Charles - unable to threaten imperial interests in Italy.
Francis was not willing to keep his word - sought the help of Wolsey to launch retaliation.
This led to the Treaty of Cognac being signed - an alliance between Francis, the Pope and the Italian states.
Arguably Wolsey is playing the peacemaker,
Henry was seeking a divorce from Catharine
Wolsey ensured England never joined the treaty, however, in 1527 Anglo-French relations were further secured with the Treaty of Westminster.
Marked the warmest relations with France and England during Henry's reign.
112
Imperial Sack of Rome and the Treaty of Cambrai - 1527
Francis was humiliated by Charles - unable to threaten imperial interests in Italy.
Francis was not willing to keep his word - sought the help of Wolsey to launch retaliation.
This led to the Treaty of Cognac being signed - an alliance between Francis, the Pope and the Italian states.
Arguably Wolsey is playing the peacemaker,
Henry was seeking a divorce from Catharine
Wolsey ensured England never joined the treaty, however, in 1527 Anglo-French relations were further secured with the Treaty of Westminster.
Marked the warmest relations with France and England during Henry's reign.
113
Why was the link between England and France longstanding?
norman conquest
114
Who was Henry heavily influenced by?
Ferdinand of Aragon
115
Why did Henry decide on invading France?
the encouragement from Ferdinand
116
Why did the invasion of France fail?
he underestimated the power of France, and Ferdinand did not fully support Henry. Lost all the money his dad saved. English troops were distraught
117
Was the battle of Bony/spurs a success?
a great victory for the English
118
What happened at the Battle of Bony?
A pursuit of the French - rather than a standard battle
119
How did Henry cement his victory in 1514?
married his sister Mary to Louis xii of France
120
What did Henry gain at the Battle of Bony?
Therounne and Tournai - Couldnt use these to launch further invasions and he had neither an army nor money
121
How was 1513 a success?
Gained Therounne and Tournai. Secured a marriage between Mary and Louis. Secured himself an annual income from the french
122
What treaty did Henry tear up?
Treaty of Perpetual Peace
123
What was the Battle of Floden?
James' army crossed the river Tweed. The English army confronted him between the hills of Flodden and Branxton in Northumberland. Artillery was used first, but both the guns and arrows were pointless because of the weather. The Scots then launched a pike attack, and the English defence began to crumble. The Earl of Surrey stood his ground just as the Scots hit the boggy ground: their momentum was lost. The armies then changed to swords - the English now had the advantage. James himself led his troops into the fray, where he and most of his Scottish nobility were killed. The English were victorious.
124
When was the Treaty of Estaples renewed?
1510
125
How much did campaigns cost Henry in 1511-13?
£960,000
126
What was the Treaty of London?
Wolsey arranges for all major European powers to meet and agree upon peace and order to fight against a common enemy (ottomans)
127
What were the weaknesses of the Treaty of London?
peace was not achieved - no long-term success
128
What were the successes of the Treaty of London?
placed a great emphasis on English being a major power - made England look more important and influential than it was and Worsey was able to make Henry seem like a big deal
129
What was the field of cloth of gold?
an astonishingly grand European festival, designed to improve relations between the two great rival kingdoms. Henry insisted that he and Francis wrestle. Henry would then lose and be humiliated in front of his people. In retaliation, Henry showed off his archery skills and challenged François to shoot his longbow, which proved too heavy for François to draw
130
What were the successes of the field of cloth of gold?
Wolsey was again able to capitalise on between Francis and Henry. Both kings had ably demonstrated their power and magnificence. Both Henry and Francis were in their early 20s which means that the Field of Cloth of Gold helped show their dominance and their way to be successful. Good showcase to try and put the Tudor dynasty on the map, as unlike the Habsburg and Valois dynasties the Tudor was still new - this could help put it on the map
131
What were the failures of the field of cloth of gold?
£40,000 - very little achieved - no long-term success
132
What was the siege of Boulogne and the attack on Paris?
Wolsey had convinced the Duke of Bourbon to side with England and turn on Francis. The attack never launched, due to Wolsey and Bourbon not following through from their side, and Wolsey wasted £400,000 on preparations. This was a crushing defeat. Wolsey wanted to be released from the terms of the treaty
133
What is the Battle of Pavia?
The battle of Pavia of 1525 was a decisive victory for the emperor charles v, who captured his rival, Francis I of France, on the field of battle and forced him to agree to Hasburg control of northern Italy and Burgundy
134
What is the failure of the Battle of Pavia?
Wolsey tried to capitalise on Charles' victory but ultimately this failed
135
Why did Henry join the Treaty of More?
When Henry realised that Charles would not give him what he wanted he entered negotiations with Francis - this led to the Treaty of More
136
What did Henry want to receive?
an annual pension
137
Where was Francis humiliated?
Pavia - by Charles
138
Why was Francis released?
under the condition that he would not threaten imperial interests in Italy
139
Who did Francis sort help from?
Francis was not willing to keep his word - sought the help of Wolsey to launch retaliation
140
Who was the treaty of cognac between?
an alliance between Francis, the pope and the Italian states. Wolsey ensured England never joined the treaty
141
What was the aim of the Treaty of Cognac?
Aim of preventing further imperial conquests by Charles
142
What was the imperial sack of Rome?
Charles sacked Rome and pope clement VII was taken prisoner
143
What was the imperial sack of Rome a disaster for Henry?
relying on the pope to help him with his great matter - and England were now enemies with those who held power over the pope by holding him, hostage
144
What is the peace treaty of Cambra?
Charles had complete control in Italy and managed to push through the peace treaty of Cambra - a treaty between France, Spain and the papacy. This was a disaster for Henry and the annulment
145
What was the amicable grant?
Henry aimed to raise taxes to take on France himself
146
Who did Henry want to pay for the amicable grant?
People of England would pay out
147
Who did Henry try to tax more heavily (amicable grant)?
Tried to tax the South more heavily - against France and they were closer to France because the South were richer
148
How much did Henry seek (an amicable grant)?
Henry VIII sought £800,000 of the new tax - a huge sum - in the form of a forced loan, not ordered by parliament, to back his planned invasion of France
149
What is the Amicable Grant Rebellion?
Major protests in Suffolk, and taxpayer discontent elsewhere. Wolsey is forced to climb down and Henry abandons his aggressive foreign policy. Ringleaders appear before the star chamber by are pardoned
150
What were the causes of the Amicable Grant Rebellion?
Tax. Henry VIII sought £800,000 of the new tax - a huge sum - in the form of a forced loan, not ordered by parliament, to back his planned invasion of France. Unemployment in the affected area was rising sharply at the time, and inflation rising fast - 12% fall in peasant's reak income in this decade, prices up 60% since 1500
151
1509-1514: General
- conflict interest between Henry/councillors. They wanted a continuation of peace (negotiated renewal of Treaty of Etaples 1510), he wanted warlike policy.
- Henry wanted to persuade the Pope to enter an alliance against France, which created the Holy League (England/Spain/Holy Roman Empire/Venice/Papacy in anti-French alliance)
- Henry was being used by Ferdinand of Aragon + Holy Roman Emperor. 1512- sent army of 10,000 men to southwest France under Marquis of Dorset = achieved nothing, used by Ferdinand as a diversionary tactic while he successfully conquered Navarre
152
1509-1514: France
- 1513- led force to northeastern France
- successful in winning 'Battle of Spurs' but also in capturing Therouanne + Tournai
limitations: in reality little more than a skirmish but claimed in propaganda to be a stunning victory. Historian Elton says 'it was nothing more than a futile sideshow'
Wolsey eventually picked up pieces with skill:
- recovered Etaples pension
- secured marriage alliance between Henry's younger sister Mary and King of France, Louis XII
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1509-1514: Scotland (Battle of Flodden)
- September 1513, King James IV crossed the border with a substantial force, but was defeated by a smaller English army hurriedly put together/led by Earl of Surrey
- James killed + Scottish nobility
limitations:
- left in hands of infant James V, Henry did little to build on advantage given at Flodden
- war very costly, Henry forced to liquidate assets inherited from his father to pay for it
- rumblings about taxation in Yorkshire (narrowly missed turning into a revolt)
- renegotiated French pension was lost
- Tournai was sold back to the French for rather less than the English had paid to repair its defences after the siege
154
1514-1526: General
Alliances made and just as quickly broken. Three points about basis of policy at this time:
1) England remained minor power, could not compete on level terms with France and Spain
2) Henry significantly overestimated English power. Wolsey then had to frame the details of foreign policy based on that false assumption
3) 'auld alliance' between France and Scotland remained strong (when England/France on amicable terms there was few issues with Anglo-Scottish relations, clashes between England/France led to increased tension between England/Scotland)
End 1514 Henry run out of money to continue warlike policy. 2 major consequences:
1) unable to exploit the weakness of Scotland following the death of James IV at Flodden
2) sought peace with France, settlement being reinforced by Mary marrying Louis XII
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1514-1526: Deaths left England isolated
- death Louis XII left throne to Francis I, Henry saw as a rival. Henry tried to seek an alliance with Ferdinand of Aragon, he died in 1516 and his successor, Charles V, sought an alliance with the French. Charles and Emperor Maximilian agreed the 'Treaty of Cambrai' with the French, leaving England isolated
- consequence isolation: Francis I could undermine Anglo-Scottish relations. Duke of Albany, heir presumptive to Scottish throne, was a member of the French nobility. Albany able to consolidate his position by being appointed as regent to the Scottish throne. Alarmed Henry/Wolsey who saw Albany as simply a French agent. However any threat was minimised due to divisions among the Scottish nobility
Limitation: Henry incapable of exploiting divisions/weaknesses within Scotland
'Treaty of London' 1518- Wolsey successful in ending isolation quickly, emerged as leading diplomat in western Europe. Treaty had origins in peace negotiations between England and France. Scope widened, became a 'treaty of perpetual peace', a non aggression pact agreed to by England, France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and other states. (Diplomatic coup for Wolsey, Pope's need for a united Christian front meant he appointed Wolsey as papal legate)
Limitations:
- future conflict would suggest it was meaningless
- could also suggest it was not Wolsey's brilliance which encouraged change but the French becoming concerned with the increased power of Spain due to election of Spanish king to the post of Holy Roman Emperor
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1514-1526: Relations with France
- Friendship between France and England continued. England returned Tournai to France, French agreed to pay pension to England for its loss. French agreed to keep Albany out of Scotland, ensured peace on Anglo-Scottish border
The Field of Cloth of Gold- June 1520:
- took place over more than two weeks between Henry VIII and Francis I
- located in France, near Calais
- each king set up a base in a lavishly decorated pavilion used for dining and entertainment
- hospitality sumptuous
- estimated cost royal treasury £15,000
Limitations:
- diplomatic terms nothing achieved
- conflict rose between Francis I/Charles V in August 1521, Wolsey negotiated the Treaty of Bruges with Charles. Henry had compelling motives to side with Charles:
1) improve relations with Pope
2) believed he may gain more territory within France
3) part of deal entailed marriage alliance between emperor + Henry's daughter Mary
English armies invaded northern France in 1522 and 1523, gained little, proved costly, with Parliament reluctant to grant extraordinary revenue to cover costs
- lack strategic awareness when he attempted to benefit from emperors crushing defeat of French at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, suggesting to Charles they launch a joint invasion of France to achieve territorial gains. Charles did not agree to this. Combined with Amicable Grant, lack public support. Three major consequences:
1) Henry obliged to back down
2) Resentment towards emperor reinforced when Charles repudiated his marriage contract with Princess Mary
3) Wolsey's domestic prestige never really recovered from the episode
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1527-1540: general failures
- failure to resolve 'Great Matter' emphasises extent to which England remained a minor power in England
- Henry + Wolsey forced by weak position to make an anti-Imperial alliance with the French in the Treaty of Amiens in 1527
- Wolsey sought to pressurise the emperor by imposing a trade embargo with the Burgundian lands, but Charles's retaliation created widespread employment/social problems in England, forcing Wolsey to back down
- Moreover, Charles V's strength, as exemplified by his victory over the French at the Battle of Landriano in 1529 + dominance over Pope = Henry's attempts to solve his marital issues by diplomatic means were doomed to failure
- Henry had to blame someone for failure = Wolsey's downfall
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1527-1540: relationship with France
- 1532: Henry tried to increase position by making a fragile alliance with France, though France also in a weak position so together they could put little pressure on the emperor
- limited usefulness to Henry of a French alliance began to unravel as Francis sought to establish a marriage alliance between his son Henry and the Pope's niece
- in the circumstances Henry had no other option but to resolve the 'Great Matter' through breaking with Rome
Pressure upon position reduced in 1536. Two reasons for this:
1) death of Catherine of Aragon + execution of Anne Boleyn opened up the possibility of a renewed alliance with emperor
2) renewal of fighting between the emperor and Francis I reduced the potential danger of England's isolated position
Relief short lived, in 1538 Henry's position had once again weakened
1) Charles + Francis once again buried differences in Treaty of Nice and they agreed to sever connections with England
2) Pope Paul III published a Bull deposing Henry and absolving English Catholics from the need to obey their ruler
3) Pope sent envoys to both France + Scotland to rouse support for a Catholic crusade against Henry
Short lived friendship between Charles + Francis broke down (didn't trust each other) = Henry in a more secure position
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1527-1540: Ireland
- beginning reign: few concerns, English authorities remained in control of the Pale, Gerald Fitzgerald (Earl of Kildare) was the dominant Irish nobleman (both English courtier and servant of Crown). However, relationship between him and the king broke down. Problem = difficult to govern Ireland with Kildare, without him he found it impossible.
- Kildare dismissal led in 1534 to a major rebellion, suppressed with difficulty and expense. Attempt to change Irish government in 1534 by bringing it more directly under English control failed utterly. Required royal government through an English-born deputy, supported by a substantial military presence. Ireland = drain on Crown's resources
- Made worse by scale of resentment amongst Gaelic lords. Two of these nobles invaded the Pale in 1539. Government eventually regained control + tried to pacify Ireland by establishing it as a separate kingdom in 1541, imposing English law and creating counties out of the Gaelic lordships. (in return received peerage titles/Irish entitled to same legal protections as English counterparts). Gov lacked resources to continue reforms, no residual Irish loyalty to English Crown, and after 1534 relationship = complex due to religious differences
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1540-1547: general
change: 1530s focus had been to minimise the foreign powers to break from Rome. In 1540s Henry returned to aggressive foreign policy which had characterised early years of reign, launching attacks on both Scotland and France
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1540-1547: Scotland
- invasion 1542 = immediate military success
- Scots forced into military action by being faced with demands which they could not have met, and were defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss
- James V died shortly after defeat, leaving one week old Mary as heir = Scottish position seemed hopeless
limitation: Henry did not launch full scale invasion on Scotland which would have been impossible for them to repel as his main interest was an invasion of France
Henry looked primarily to diplomatic pressure as a means of securing his Scottish objectives, while he sought military glory in France.
Scottish policy known as 'rough wooing'- Henry sought to marry Prince Edward to Mary, Queen of Scots (Scots refused to allow Mary be brought up in England, the policy was enjoyed for a short while by the Earl of Arran). The children were betrothed according to the terms of the Treaty of Greenwich in 1543. Arran deserted the English cause, Scottish parliament refused to ratify the treaty. Prompted an enraged Henry to order the Earl of Hertford to carry out a punitive raid on Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews
Henry criticised for failure of Scottish policy:
1) neglected the opportunity to secure his policy by military force when he had opportunity in 1542
2) he failed to heed warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions
3) his ordering of Hertford into Scotland was retaliation, no thought to possible strategic objectives and simply served to antagonise the Scots further
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1540-1547: France
- to facilitate French invasion, Henry agreed an alliance with the emperor.
- concern with France shown by size of army in 1544. Henry, desperate for military glory, set off at the head of his army.
- little thought to strategic options. English army confined itself to the vicinity of Calais, besieging Montreuil unsuccessfully but capturing Boulogne. By this time, emperor had enough of conflict and made separate peace with Francis I
Matters worse in 1545:
- Francis I sent troops to Scotland to reinforce a possible invasion of England from across the Scottish border
- the English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor
- a separate French force landed in the Isle of Wight
- Henry's flagship, the Mary Rose, sank
However:
- French failed to recapture Boulogne and the invasion of northern England never materialised
- in end decided peace as could not afford continued conflict, peace agreed in 1546
(Henry paid high price for glory, unable to fund war via extraordinary revenue, sold much of crown estate, borrowed large sums and debased the coinage = increase inflation
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Securing the Succession
- securing succession, ideally with male heir, proved to be obsession through his whole reign. Problem which brought break from Rome/rebellion (the Pilgrimage of Grace) + wider political problems
1516- birth Princess Mary, heir presumptive
1532- pregnancy of Anne Boleyn
1533- annulment of marriage of Henry and Catherine of Aragon + birth of Princess Elizabeth
1534- Succession Act confirms Elizabeth as heir presumptive Declares Mary illegitimate
1536- Death of Catherine of Aragon
Execution of Anne Boleyn
Marriage of Henry and Jane Seymour
Succession Act repels 1534 Act, declares Elizabeth illegitimate and lays down that Henry can determine the succession by will in absence of heir apparent
1537- Birth of Prince Edward as heir apparent
1544- Succession Act receives the royal assent, repeals the 1536 Act, reinstates Mary and Elizabeth in the succession and reaffirms that Henry could determine the succession by will
1546- Henry VIII's will confirms the terms of the 1544 Succession Act and lays down that in default of heirs to Edward, Mary and Elizabeth the succession should pass to the heirs of his sister Mary
Also set up a regency council to act on Edward's behalf
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How did many people in East Anglia respond to Wolsey's Amicable Grant in 1525?
They refused to pay
165
Who met the Amicable Grant rebels and what did they do?
The Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk - they heard that the rebels couldn't afford to pay, which they told to the king
166
What did Henry VIII do in response to the Amicable Grant rebellion?
Stopped trying to get people to pay it
167
What rebellion began in October 1536?
Lincolnshire Rising
168
Who led the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Robert Aske, a gentleman and lawyer from Selby
169
What was the main motive for the rebels of the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Opposition to Cromwell's religious reforms
170
What evidence do we have for the Catholic character of the Pilgrimage of Grace?
The banner of the Five Wounds of Christ that the rebels carried; the contents of the Pontefract Articles
171
What did the Pontefract Articles call for?
The restoration of papal supremacy; for closed monasteries to be reopened; for the destruction of Protestant doctrine in England
172
What, other than religious grievances, were the motives for the rebels of the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Economic and social grievances, with ordinary people angry about taxation, rent, and enclosures
173
Which social groups were involved in the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Every social group in Northern society
174
What did the rebels do during the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Occupied York and captured Pontefract Castle
175
What was the government's response to the Pilgrimage of Grace?
The Duke of Norfolk took an army north and met the rebels at Doncaster
176
What did the Duke of Norfolk do once he met the rebels of the Pilgrimage of Grace?
He issued a pardon to the rebels and promised that the dissolved monasteries would be restored and that a new parliament would be called
177
What was the response of the rebels of the Pilgrimage of Grace to the Duke of Norfolk's offer?
Most of the rebels dispersed
178
How did rebellion resume in 1537?
It broke out again in Cumberland led by 'Captain Poverty' in protest at social ills and poverty
179
What did the Duke of Norfolk do in response to the renewed rebellion in Cumberland?
Norfolk crushed the new rebellion by force, declared Martial Law and hanged 74 rebels. He also cracked down on the leaders of the Pilgrimage, many of whom were arrested, sent to London, tried and executed for treason
180
What treaty was renewed in 1510?
Treaty of Etaples
181
What did the Pope convene in 1511?
The Holy League, an anti-French alliance of England, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and Venice
182
What did Henry's invasion of France in 1512, led by the Marquis of Dorset, achieve?
Nothing
183
What battle did Henry win during his invasion of France in 1513?
The Battle of the Spurs
184
Which two French towns did Henry capture during his invasion of France in 1513?
Thérouanne and Tournai
185
When James IV of Scotland invaded England in 1513 who led the English force that went north to engage his army?
Early of Surrey (having been sent by Catherine of Aragon)
186
What was the outcome of the Battle of Flodden in 1513?
The English army defeated the Scottish army, and James IV and several leading Scottish nobles were killed in the fighting
187
What treaty did the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sign with France in 1516?
Treaty of Cambrai
188
What did the Treaty of London, which Wolsey successfully negotiated in 1518, create?
An alliance of all Catholic countries against the Ottoman Empire which was invading Hungary and Austria
189
What diplomatic event was held in France in 1520?
Field of Cloth of Gold
190
What took place at the Field of Cloth of Gold?
It was a festival of chivalry. Francis I beat Henry VIII in a wrestling match
191
What treaty did England enter into in 1521 and who was it with?
Treaty of Bruges with the Holy Roman Empire
192
What did English armies do as a result of the Treaty of Bruges?
Invaded France in 1522 and 1523 as diversions while the Holy Roman Emperor engaged the French in northern Italy
193
What battle did the Holy Roman Emperor win in 1525 partly as a result of the English support that he had gained in the Treaty of Bruges?
Battle of Pavia
194
What did the Pope convene in 1526 to try to unite other European kingdoms against the now dominant Holy Roman Empire?
League of Cognac
195
What did Charles V's armies take control of in 1527?
Rome, and therefore also the Pope
196
Why did Charles V's capture of Rome and the Pope mean that there was no chance that Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon would ever be annulled?
Charles V was Catherine of Aragon's nephew and he would never allow the Pope, whom he now controlled, to shame her by doing so
197
What treaty did Henry VIII sign with the French in 1527, joining with them against the Holy Roman Empire?
Treaty of Amiens
198
How did Wolsey try to weaken the Holy Roman Empire in the late 1520s, and why did he gives this plan up?
By imposing a trade embargo with Burgundy but he soon gave it up because it caused unemployment in England
199
What battle did Charles V win over the French in 1529?
Battle of Landriano
200
What did the French give up in the Peace of Cambrai?
Its ambitions in Italy
201
What did the Pope issue in 1538?
A Papal Bull excommunicating Henry from the Catholic Church
202
Why did Henry marry Anne of Cleves in 1540?
To cement an alliance with the Protestant League of Schmalkalden and therefore end his diplomatic isolation
203
What battle did Henry VIII win against the Scottish in 1542?
Battle of Solway Moss
204
What happened shortly after the Battle of Solway Moss?
James V died, leaving the throne to his infant daughter Mary, Queen of Scots
205
What were the terms of the Treaty of Greenwich signed between England and Scotland in 1543?
It formally betrothed Prince Edward and Mary, Queen of Scots
206
Why did the Treaty of Greenwich have no practical effect?
The Scottish Regent, the Earl of Arran, rejected it and the Scottish Parliament refused to ratify it
207
What did Henry VIII achieve in his final invasion of France in 1544?
He captured the town of Boulogne
208
France
The link between england and france was longstanding due to the normal conquest in 1066
The first dual claim of king of england and france came in 1340 with king edward iii
The hundred years war followed (1337 - 1453) where england and france were continually at war
King Henry V was a celebrated king for his famous victory at agincourt in 1415 - he became the archetypal warrior king, a true leader of his people
209
Spain
After his marriage to catherine in 1509, henry was heavily influenced and guided by his father in law ferdinand of aragon
Encouraged by ferdinand, henry decided on invading France in 1511 and led his troops there in 1512, under the promise of help from Ferdinand
Whilst most money was being spent, very little was achieved
With demoralised troops - and many diseased and dying of dusenery - the troops returned to england
210
Why did it fail?
Understimated power of France
Ferdinand did not fully support henry
Henry went to war off the back of Fernidland saying that he would support him. When he pulls out, henry is left alone and isolated, with effective proof that without the backing of Ferdinand and the support of France failed
Absolute disaster
Lost all the money his dad saved
English troops were distraught
211
The Battle of Bony
In 1513 sent a second force to France, allied with the holy roman emperor.
The battle of bony - or battle of spurs as it is often called - in august was a great victory for the English.
A pursuit of the French - rather than a standard battle - nevertheless gave henry a much-needed victory after the previous french failures.
To cement his victory Henry married his sister mary to Louis xii of France in 1514, but otherwise did not capitalise on his success.
212
Therounne and Tournai
Couldn't use these to launch further invasions and he had neither an army or money
Insignificant parts of Land
213
1513 were a success
Gained Therounne and Tournai
Seccured a marriage between Mary and Louis
Secured himself an annual income from the french
214
What happened in september 1513?
Whilst Henry was preoccupied with France, another old enemy decided to seize the moment and attack.
Henry VIII embarked upon a very aggressive foreign policy in the early years of his reign
James IV of Scotland and Henry VII had agreed a Treaty of Perpetual Peace in 1502. When Henry VIII came to the throne in 1509, he tore up the treaty and ordered his parliament to pronounce James as “the very homage and obedience of right to your Highness.” This personal dispute – coupled with Henry’s invasion of France, Scotland’s old alliance – encouraged James to invade.
In September 1513, James’ army crossed the river Tweed, the historical boundary between Scotland and England. The English army led by the Earl of Surrey confronted him on the 9th between the hills of Flodden and Branxton in Northumberland. Artillery was used first, but both the guns and arrows were pointless because of the weather. The Scots then launched a pike attack, and the English defence began to crumble.
The Earl of Surrey, the Commander of Henry’s army, stood his ground just as the Scots hit boggy ground: their momentum was lost. The armies then changed to swords – the English now had the advantage. James himself led his troops into the fray, where he and most of his Scottish nobility were killed. The English were victorious.
James IV is killed - first five years of Henry’s reign and is killed by his forces - felt pride
215
What kind of foreign policy would Henry pursue in 1509?
Henry viii wanted to break away from the policies of his father - did not follow the advice of his father’s advisers
Warham and Fox were both against the idea of war
Warham: archbishop and lord chancellor
Fox: lord privy seal and trusted adviser the king
1492: treaty of etaples signed between Henry VII and Charles VIII of France (stop support for Warbeck)
1510: treaty of etaples is renewed - pleases Warham and Fox
1511: Henry VIII joins the holy league (Henry VIII, Charles V and the papacy against France)
216
What had Henry achieved by 1514?
Stamped his mark on European affairs and showed he was a renaissance monarch different from his father
Henry had been delivered by Ferdinand by 1512
Laid claim to his inherited title of King of France - prestige and standing
Thomas Wolsey had risen as a star
Invasion force of 1513 (battle of spurs) had been impressive - Thereouanne and Tournal were soft targets?
High costs of campaigns - £960,000 in 1511-13. His income was only 110,000 per annum
Flodden - the death of James IV - Scotland neutralised
In 1514 reality of finances put pressure on alliance with France - Maximilian and Ferdinand made peace with France
217
Elites- Nobility
- Growth of a professional and commercial group. Traditional nobles (or peers)/greater gentry still represented a social elite which wielded considerable political and economic influence
Nobility:
- increased during Henry VIII reign
- most of the new peers had achieved their rank due to successful royal service as courtiers or soldiers. Sometimes enhanced by close family relationship (e.g. Edward Seymour elevated to earldom of Hertford)
- Henry VIII only promoted 2 non-royal ducal titles, Norfolk and Suffolk. Norfolk was restored to the title which had been enjoyed by his father; Suffolk was promoted on account of the closeness of his personal relationship with the king. Both served king as solders/courtiers.
- Henry sometimes bestowed property on nobles to enable them to exert royal authority in particular areas.= (e.g. Suffolk endowed with property in Lincolnshire after the rebellion in 1536 and the king ordered him to move there to exert authority in person)
- Nobles expected to have great households/offer hospitality (critical to maintenance of loyal influence)
- Nobility was brought more under the control of the monarch
- Some nobles were victims (Duke of Buckingham was executed for treason on vaguest of charges in 1521)
218
Elites- The Gentry
- about 5000 gentry families in England in 1540
- knighthoods were conferred as a sign of royal favour
- a gentleman who was entitled to bear a coat of arms was deemed an esquire (certified by royal heralds)
- by 1530 heralds were unwilling to grant or confirm the title to anyone with lands worth less than £10 per annum
- number of gentry increased during the reign of Henry VIII
- increase in number of JPs increased numbers of those who participated in local administration
- many other members of gentry drawn into unpaid administration on behalf of the Crown
- Crown's local administrators formally clergymen, now were laymen, whose office holding often generated the income which would bring about landownership/gentry status
219
Commoners
- little change in standard of living of commoners during first half reign
- rise in inflation did lead to drop in real incomes = contributed to ill feeling felt by many towards imposition of Amicable Grant
- social structure substantially unchanged
- most had little possessions/secure employment. Government feared these as outbreaks of disorder was common
220
Regional Issues- Wales
Wales:
- before 1536 separate territory to England, though in practice under English control.
- change of laws in Wales in 1536:
1) divided Wales into shire counties which operated on same basis as their English counterparts
2) gave the Welsh shires direct representation in the House of Commons at Westminster for the first time
3) brought Wales into the same legal framework as England
- Wales became incorporated into England with little of a separate identity except for the survival of the Welsh language in some parts of the country. Control over Wales continued to be exercised on the Crown's behalf (this increasingly became responsibility of members of the aristocracy)
221
Regional Issues- The English Palatinates
- 3 English counties, Lancashire, Cheshire, Durham, were technically 'palatinates' (separate jurisdiction from rest of kingdom)
- Durham still technically separate, with jurisdiction being exercised by the Bishop.
- the Act Resuming Liberties to the Crown of 1536 reduced the level of independence enjoyed by the bishop, but did not destroy it completely.
222
Regional Issues- Border Adminstration
The Anglo-Welsh border:
- lands which were governed as part of the Principality of Wales came under the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales and the Marches
- Offered relatively cheap and local access to the law, a benefit to the area under its jurisdiction
The Anglo-Scottish border:
- problematical area, difficult to police, both sides of border had a reputation for lawlessness (cattle/sheep rustling rife + violence common)
- border with Scotland split into three marches, each under jurisdiction of a warden. Filling of posts could be difficult (some would try to enhance power). Appointing complete outsiders often had limited ability to influence the conduct of local people who often saw themselves as owing a primary loyalty to a local magnate (border magnate families lust trustworthy)
223
Regional Issues- The Council in the North
- posed problems of governance
- demonstrated strongly with huge number of supporters for 'Pilgrimage of Grace' in 1536.
- led Henry + Cromwell to re-establish the Council as a permanent body based in York with professional staff
- both administrative and legal functions: showed its worth by helping to keep the north quiet during summer of rebellions in 1549
224
Social Impact of Religious Upheaval
- start of reign little sign there would be fundamental changes to English Church. Been some improvement to quality of clergy + Wolsey had dissolved some redundant monasteries, using their endowments for educational purposes
- 1530s: major change when Henry VIII broke from Rome and became head of a new English church. No popular support, executions of some who denied the royal supremacy (Sir Thomas More)
- monasteries an important feature of the appeal of pre-Reformation church. Cromwell's dissolution of the monasteries, begun 1536, and royal injunctions of 1536, attacked many of the traditional practices of Catholicism, such as holy days, pilgrimages, and the veneration of relics. Provoked fears these reforms would be accompanied by an attack on parish church
- most important consequence = major rebellion in 1536 in Lincolnshire and parts of north of England
Religious Upheaval had long-lasting social consequences:
1) huge amount of land was taken from church by the crown. Should have made king more powerful. (however due to expense of warlike foreign policy most of the monastic land acquired by the Crown had been sold off or granted away)
2) many monasteries had been noted for their educational provision. With their demise, most monastic schools were lost.
3) Many monks and nuns were rendered unemployment at a stroke. Some monks were able to secure employment as secular priests and many others received pensions. The position of nuns was precarious.
4) some monasteries played a considerable role in the communities they were situated. Provided education, employment and business opportunities. Dissolution seen as a potential disaster.
225
Rebellion- Resistance to Taxation: the Amicable Grant
- imposition of taxes to pay for foreign wars brought instability + disorder
- complaints in Yorkshire about subsidy to raise money for Henry's campaigns in 1513 (demands for some areas affected were eventually written off)
- many refused to pay the Amicable Grant in 1525
- opposition geographically widespread, strongest resistance occurred in north Essex + south Suffolk
- 1000 people gathered at Essex-Suffolk border and were determined to resist payment
- Dukes Norfolk + Suffolk also faced about 4000 taxation resisters (unemployed cloth workers who found it impossible to pay the levy)
- dukes handled matter sensitively, king backed down. Wolsey publicly begged the king to offer pardon to those whom he saw as his Suffolk countrymen, leaders of resistance treated leniently.
- Henry could not operate in defiance of the taxpaying classes. When he invaded France next time, he supplemented his extraordinary revenue with cash from the sale of monastic lands.
226
The Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace- what it was/causes
what it was:
- largest single rebellion in Tudor England
- began as a rising which started in Lincolnshire in early October 1536, which spread into Yorkshire and elsewhere
- a second more militant rising started in the dales around Yorkshire. The rebels here were more radicalised/hostile towards gentry due to strength of their grievances against their landlords. Class antagonism was clear from letters sent out in the name of 'Captain Poverty'.
causes:
- various secular motives played a part
- undoubtedly the case that opposition to the impact of Henry VIII's religious changes figured among the rebels' grievances. What sparked off rebellion was the huge resentment about a government which was pushing too quickly for fundamental religious change that most ordinary people could neither sympathise with nor even understand
227
The Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace- religious motives
religious motives:
1) Dissolution of the Monasteries. By early autumn 1536 the work of dissolving the smaller monasteries was well under way. It was clear the dissolution would have a number of effects which many people found undesirable:
- loss of the charitable/educational functions which some monasteries provided
- possible loss of parish churches which were monastic properties
- fear that the North would be impoverished by monastic land falling into the hands of the southerners
- usefulness of facilities/services the church provided
(importance of monasteries to rebels shown in attempts to restore some of the houses which had been suppressed)
2) fear for parish churches + traditional religious practices. 1536 Injunctions drawn up by Cromwell were seen as attacking traditional religious practices:
- celebration locally important saints discouraged
- linked to the discouragement of pilgrimage
- rumours that the church plate/jewels, bequeathed by parishioners, would be confiscated and that parishes might be
amalgamated
228
The Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace- secular motives
1) the ordinary rebels were generally more motivated by economic grievances, including resentment of taxation
2) crown's attempts to impose the Duke of Suffolk upon Lincolnshire as a great magnate may initially have sparked the rebellion in Lincolnshire
3) extension of rebellion west of the Pennines into Cumberland and Westmorland has been linked in particular to tenants' grievances
229
Suppression of Rebellions:
- most geographically widespread/most popular in terms of participation
- though rebellion quickly collapsed, northern rebels had occupied York/Hull + captured Pontefract Castle
- rebellions caused great alarm to the king and his ministers
- Norfolk sought to defuse the rebellion through the issue of a pardon and the promise that the dissolved monasteries would be restored and a free parliament established. (King had no intention of honouring this, but it did mean rebels dispersed)
- rebellion in 1537 was quickly suppressed, 74 rebels hanged.
- number of rebel leaders were tried and executed
- Pilgrimage of Grace shook Henry VIII, record in dealing was poor. He ignored warnings about the increase in resentment which he did not wish to hear. He was fortunate that the Duke of Norfolk showed common sense/flexibility. Pilgrimage did not slow pace of religious change
230
Trade
- volume of English trade increased during first half of sixteenth century
- continued rise in cloth exports
- market for wool declined
- woollen cloth exports almost doubled during Henry VIII's reign + increases in exports of hide and tin
- exports counterbalanced by increase in import for wine (spreading power classes increased)
- leading route for exports: London to Antwerp, sent to customers in Europe. Increasing proportion of exported cloths was routed through London (negative impact on other ports e.g. Bristol)
- Southampton enjoyed a boom (short lived)
- 70% cloth exports were transported by English merchants from the 1550s, profits to be made
- cloth trade industry operated largely on a domestic basis with children carding the wool, women spinning and men weaving it. Wool was then passed from the domestic sphere for more specialist treatment such as fulling/dyeing
- 3 areas saw greatest growth in cloth industry were: West Riding of Yorkshire, East Anglia, parts of the West Country
- some growth in mining industries. Cornish tin remained a prize export.
231
Exploration
- uninterested in exploration, no attempt to build on early achievements of Cabot/Bristol merchants
- many merchants that showed interest in further exploration found themselves unable to win royal support for any venture
- Sebastian Cabot remained in Spain for most of Henry VIII's reign apart from 2 short visits to England, and it was only after Edward VI took the throne that he returned
232
Prosperity and Depression
John Guy argued Tudor England was economically healthier/more expansive/more optimistic:
- population began to grow significantly from 1525 with decline in rate or mortality
- from 1520s, agricultural prices rose significantly, there was an increase in farming incomes
- debasement of the coinage created a short term artificial boom in 1544-1546
On other hand:
- bad harvests (1520-1521) led to increase food prices. Prices almost doubled across Henry VIII's reign.
- real wages began to decline for many (especially when effects of debasement was evident)
- assessment for subsidies indicated considerable urban poverty
- evidence of growing unemployment amongst rural labourers, over 5000 migrants a year adding to population
- some people made homeless on account of engrossing, thought extent/effects difficult to determine and legislation regarding the problem was ineffective
233
Impact of Enclosure
- perceived as creating a moral problem in that it led to the poor being forced to leave their homes
- muddled legislation had been passed between 1489 and 1515, but there was no real grasp of its extent/scale of problem
- Wolsey launched an enclosure commission to ascertain the scale of the problem, proceedings were launched successfully against no fewer than 188 defendants who were found to have enclosed illegaly
- bulk of damage caused by enclosure/ conversion of land from tillage to pasture had taken place before 1485
- that did not prevent further legislation in 1534 which attempted to limit sheep ownership and engrossing
234
Population
- main underlying cause of economic distress was the increase in population. Put a strain on supply of food = difficult to meet rising demand
- wages stagnating, plentiful supply cheap labour
- beneficiaries of population increase were wealthier farmers/landowners (agricultural prices/income from farming rose)
- prosperity for landlords, impoverishment for wage earners
- society more polarised, which undermined traditional ideals of good lordship + social responsibility
235
Renaissance Ideas- Humanism + Education
- began to flourish during Henry VIII reign
- king encouraged thinkers (e.g. More) and some of his cultural patronage showed the influence of fashionable artistic trends which had arrived in England from Italy
Humanism + Education:
- significant humanist voice in education = John Colet (refounded St Paul's School, London, showed two changes: appointed as the school's governors members drawn from a city guild rather than choosing clergymen + school's statutes laid down a curriculum and teaching methods from humanist principles
- schools like St Paul's and Magdalen College School in Oxford = forefront of educational reform, adopted Platonist educational principles, influence steadily grew
- Wolsey gave personal commitment to educational improvement by founding his college 'Cardinal College'
- Erasmus received with enthusiasm, had influence on younger generation of English humanists (Erasmian humanism did have limited scope
236
Renaissance Ideas and English Culture
change that occurred in his reign:
1) knowledge of classical learning increased amongst the elite groups in society
2) a growing number of schools became influenced by humanist approaches to education
3) Henry VIII saw himself as a promoter of new ideas and of humanism
4) the Crown needed well-educated diplomats who could communicate with their counterparts in other countries in a fashionably elegant style
- most important humanist writer: Thomas More (combined intellectual interests with his work as a lawyer and statesman)
- Renaissance ideas also had an increasing influence on visual culture e.g. tombs of Henry VIII's parents and grandmother were produced in Renaissance style (commissioned by Italian sculptor)
- another Renaissance style = rood screen erected in early 1530s in chapel of King's College, Cambridge, celebrating marriage of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn
- can be argued Gothic remained predominant cultural form, with the dominant painters at Henry VIII's court being from 'northern Renaissance', which owed far more to Gothic influences than to Italian Renaissance
237
Reform of the Church
1532-1540 Henry VIII + Thomas Cromwell + Archbishop Cranmer withdrew the English church from the jurisdiction of the papacy, established the king as supreme head of the Church, dissolved monasteries and began to alter doctrines/practices
hugely significant process, not foreseen in early years of reign as church was popular/effective (despite weaknesses)
238
Weaknesses of the Church
Corruption:
- included pluralism (receiving profits of more than one post), simony (the purchase of church office) and non-residence (receiving profits of a post but not being present to perform the duties associated with it)
- corrupt clergyman = Wolsey, many others guilty, especially as the Crown used church offices as a way of rewarding those of its officials who were clergymen
Anticlericalism:
- opposition to political and social importance of clergy
- weakness of church
- some common lawyers objected to influence of canon law, law of the church, and there were objections to the legal privileges of the clergy
- some instances of clerical misconduct which did cause criticism, worst example concerned the death of Richard Hunne 1514 (attempt to cover up murder by suicide, disastrous in short term for reputation of church)
Decline of Monasticism:
- Wolsey secured the dissolution of around 20 houses in 1520s to fund the Cardinal College.
- some historians argue the larger monasteries had become, they were substantial businesses with huge resources in terms of land/buildings
- some orders were flourishing up to the final days of the dissolution
239
Evidence of early English Protestantism
- little evidence of substantial movement towards Protestantism in years following Martin Luther's attack on the Catholic Church in 1517
- some Lollard beliefs survived, evidence of influence of German reformers in London in 1520s
- intellectual level nucleus of future reformers based in Cambridge in 1520s who met for religious discussions at the White Horse (leading figure Robert Barnes). Most influential member of group was future Archbishop Cranmer
240
Erasmianism and the Reformation
- some reformers did have humanist connections (e.g. Archbishop Cranmer)
- not all reformers were humanists (many humanists were not reformers at all, or went along with reforms in which they did not believe in order to maintain lives/positions)
- some evidence that a humanist approach to reform persisted during the final years of Henry VIII's reign (king turned to humanists to tutor Edward and Elizabeth. King's last wife also had humanist education, which was unusual for a women of her generation)
241
Change to Church's Structure
change: King becomes supreme head of the Church
significance: confirmed by Act of Supremacy in 1534
change: King appoints Cromwell 'Vicegerent in Spirituals', 1534
significance: Cromwell was second only to the king and therefore outranked the archbishops and bishops. This gave Cromwell considerable power over the Church.
change: six new dioceses (areas under the jurisdiction of a bishop) were created, though one was soon abolished
significance: this was an attempt to improve the church's administration
no other changes made to structure of church
242
Dissolution of the Monasteries
- traced back to 15535 when Cromwell set up a survey to see how wealthy the church was. Gave Cromwell a broadly accurate indication of the resources available for the crown to plunder
- had to get evidence. four 'visitors' sent round country to inspect all monastic institutions, found much to criticise (instructed to find weakness/corruption)
- visitors provided enough evidence to justify bringing in an Act of Parliament in 1536 to dissolve the smaller monasteries, defined as those with income of £200 per annum or less (argument being it was smaller houses which had allowed standards to slip)
- scope dissolution widened after 'Pilgrimage of Grace', as the heads of religious houses that had been implicated in the rebellion voluntarily surrendered to the crown
- 1539: Act dissolving the remaining monasteries was passed, by March 1540 all of the remaining religious houses had been dissolved
243
Attack on traditional religious practices
- began with issue in 1536 of the first set of royal injunctions, taken further two years later
- 1536 injunctions encouraged moral conduct/restriction on number of holy days to be observed and discouraged pilgrimages
- 1538 pilgrimages/veneration of relics and images condemned, clergy who had upheld the virtues of pilgrimages/relics/images required to publicly recant
- radical changes
244
The English Bible
- injunctions of 1538 required each parish church to acquire an English Bible
- first edition of the Great Bible appeared in 1539, showing Henry VIII graciously 'offering' the word of God on the one hand to Cranmer/bishops and on other to Cromwell/politicians
- within 4 years, Henry tired of this role, fearful of allowing the wrong sorts of people to read the wrong parts of the Bible
- the Act for the Advancement of True Religion of 1543 therefore restricted the public reading of the Bible to upper class males
245
Changes to Doctrine
Protestant beliefs introduced, e.g. consubstantiation (opposed transubstantiation). No consistent pattern of doctrinal change, which reflected the king's inability to make up his mind definitely about matters.
1536 Ten Articles: only three sacraments: baptism, penance and Eucharist, were seen as necessary to salvation but definition of Eucharist was ambiguous. Confession was praised. Praying to saints for remission of sins was rejected but praying to saints for other purposes was still deemed 'laudable'
Significance: ambiguous document which showed both Lutheran and Catholic influences on the development of doctrine
1537 Bishops' Book: restored the four sacraments omitted from the Ten Articles, but the four restored sacraments were given a lower status.
Significance: more conservative document than the Ten Articles
1539 Six Articles Act: this reasserted Catholic doctrine. Denial of transubstantiation was deemed heretical.
Significance: this was a triumph for the conservatives. It was founded on the assumption that there had been too much religious controversy and that this undermined the good ordering of society. Two reforming bishops resigned their posts.
1543 King's Book: this revised the Bishops' Book
Significance: the emphasis was largely conservative, but with some Lutheran hints
246
Continuity and Change in Religion/Culture by 1547
continuity:
- hierarchy of church remained largely intact
- little attempt to change interior church
- services remained largely traditional in form
- services continued to be held in Latin and music continued to play an important role in services
change:
- jurisdiction of Pope destroyed
- king much more visible authority figure than Pope
- monasteries dissolved/many monastic buildings fallen into ruin
- massive transfer of resources from the church to the crown through the dissolution
- parish churches were required to possess Bibles in English
- religious culture influenced by humanism
- wider Renaissance culture had become firmly entrenched at court and in the circles of the wealthy and well educated and would retain its cultural prominence for the rest of the century
247
What was the name of the document drawn up by Thomas Cranmer and Edward Foxe in 1531 which claimed to prove that the King of England had an imperial jurisdiction over England?
Collectanea Satis Copiosa
248
What did Henry VIII collectively charge the English clergy with in 1531?
Praemunire
249
What did Henry VIII declare himself in 1531?
Supreme Head of the Church of England
250
When did the English clergy submit to Henry VIII?
1532
251
Which two Acts of Parliament secured the separation of the Church of England from Rome?
Act of Supremacy and Act in Restraint of Appeals
252
What did the Act of Supremacy, 1534 do?
It confirmed in law Henry VIII's position as Supreme Head of the Church of England
253
What did the Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths of 1534 do?
It took the Annates formerly paid by bishops to the Pope and kept them for the King
254
To what religious office was Cromwell appointed in 1534?
Vicegerent in Spirituals
255
Where did the Vicegerent in Spirituals rank in the hierarchy of the newly independent Church of England?
Second - below the King; above the Archbishop of Canterbury.
256
What did Cromwell compile in 1535 in order to survey the wealth of English monasteries?
Valor Ecclesiasticus
257
How much income did a monastery need to be affected by the 1536 Act dissolving smaller monasteries?
£200 a year or less
258
What did the Injunctions of 1536 do?
restricted the number of holy days and discouraged pilgrimages
259
What was the doctrinal position of the Ten Articles of 1536?
Mostly Lutheran with some Catholic vestiges
260
Which sacraments were kept in the Ten Articles?
baptism, penance and Eucharist
261
How did the Ten Articles define Eucharist?
ambiguously, allowing both Catholic and Lutheran interpretations
262
What did the Ten Articles say about praying to saints for remission of sins?
Condemned the practice
263
How did the Bishops' Book of 1537 change the number of sacraments?
It restored the four sacraments omitted in the Ten Articles
264
What did the Injunctions of 1538 condemn?
Pilgrimages and praying to images of saints
265
What did the Injunctions of 1538 require every parish to do?
Buy a copy of the Bible in English
266
What did the Six Articles Act of 1539 reassert?
Catholic doctrine
267
When was the Act dissolving all of the remaining monasteries passed?
1539
268
In what year was the dissolution of the monasteries complete?
1540
269
To whom did the Act for the Advancement of True Religion limit who was allowed to read the Bible in English?
Only noblemen and gentlemen
270
In what years did bad harvests push up food prices?
1520-1 and 1527-9
271
What did an assessment for the Subsidy find in Coventry?
half of the population of Coventry possessed no wealth
272
When and where was the Council in the North re-founded?
1536 in York
273
What was the re-founding of the Council in the North in response to?
The Pilgrimage of Grace
274
What did the Laws in Wales Act of 1536 do?
extended the English system of parliamentary representation and county administration into Wales
275
Roughly how many gentry families were there in England in 1540?
5000
276
How many new noble families were there in England at the end of Henry VIII's reign (compared to the start)?
9
277
Why was the coinage debased in 1544?
To fund Henry VIII's invasion of France
278
What did the debasement of the coinage in 1544 start?
A long period of inflation
279
From which year did population begin to grow in Henry VIII's reign due to a decline in mortality?
1525
280
In which decade in Henry VIII's reign did food prices begin to rise dramatically?
1520s
281
How many people each year migrated to London from English villages as a result of growing poverty during Henry VIII's reign?
5000
282
How many people did Wolsey's enclosure commission of 1517 try for illegally enclosing their lands?
188
283
In which English region did Wolsey's enclosure commission of 1517 find enclosures to be mostly limited to?
East Midlands
