HI 207 Augusts 22 Flashcards
(14 cards)
Caesar and Octavian
a. Assassination (March 15, 44 BCE)
On March 15, 44 BCE, Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius, who feared his growing power as dictator for life threatened the ideals of the Republic. Though the conspirators aimed to restore traditional senatorial authority, Caesar’s murder had the opposite effect—it created a power vacuum and triggered a new round of civil wars. The assassination ultimately failed to revive the Republic, instead paving the way for Octavian, Caesar’s adopted heir, to rise as the dominant force in Roman politics.
Caesar and Octavian
b. Second Triumvirate (43-33)
In 43 BCE, Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate, a legally established alliance with the power to make laws, appoint magistrates, and command armies without Senate approval. Formed to avenge Caesar’s assassination and defeat his killers, the Triumvirs launched proscriptions—targeted executions of political enemies, including Cicero. After defeating Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi (42 BCE), tensions between Octavian and Antony grew. Antony allied with Cleopatra of Egypt, while Octavian positioned himself as the defender of Roman tradition. The alliance unraveled by 33 BCE, setting the stage for a final showdown that would decide the fate of the Republic.
Caesar and Octavian
c. Final War of the Roman Republic (33-30)
From 33 to 30 BCE, the Final War of the Roman Republic unfolded as tensions between Octavian and Mark Antony—once allies in the Second Triumvirate—erupted into open conflict. Antony’s alliance with Cleopatra VII of Egypt and his growing eastern power base alarmed many in Rome, allowing Octavian to portray him as a traitor to Roman values. The decisive moment came at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, where Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet. By 30 BCE, both Antony and Cleopatra were dead, and Octavian emerged as the sole ruler of the Roman world. With no rivals left, this victory marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire under Augustus, Octavian’s new title.
Augustus in Rome
a. First Settlement (27)
In 27 BCE, Octavian initiated the First Settlement, formally ending the Republic in name while preserving its appearance. He returned power to the Senate, but in reality, it was a political performance. The Senate granted him the title “Augustus”, meaning “revered one,” and control over key provinces with the bulk of Rome’s legions, securing his military and political dominance. By balancing traditional Republican institutions with his personal authority, Augustus laid the foundation for the Principate, a system in which the emperor ruled with the façade of Republican legality. This clever compromise marked the official beginning of the Roman Empire.
Augustus in Rome
b. Second Settlement (23-19)
In the Second Settlement (23–19 BCE), Augustus refined his powers to secure long-term control while easing senatorial concerns. He gave up the consulship, which he had held continuously, but received imperium maius—greater command authority than any other official—over all provinces, and tribunician power (tribunicia potestas), allowing him to propose laws and veto actions throughout Rome. These powers gave Augustus legal supremacy without holding traditional office, reinforcing the illusion of Republican governance while ensuring absolute control. This settlement further stabilized the Principate, allowing Augustus to rule as emperor in all but name while maintaining broad public and elite support.
Augustus in Rome
c. Culture and Moral Legislation
As part of his broader effort to revive traditional Roman values, Augustus enacted a series of cultural and moral reforms aimed at restoring order after decades of civil war. Through legislation like the Lex Julia and Lex Papia Poppaea, he promoted marriage, childbearing, and penalized adultery, positioning himself as the moral guardian of Rome. Augustus also celebrated Roman heritage through literature, architecture, and religion—supporting poets like Virgil and Horace, rebuilding temples, and reviving traditional priesthoods. These efforts tied personal behavior to civic duty, reinforcing Augustus’s image as a restorer of Roman greatness and helping legitimize his new imperial role.
Augustus and the empire
a. The Army
One of Augustus’s most critical reforms was the professionalization and restructuring of the Roman army, turning it into a stable foundation for the new imperial system. He reduced the number of legions to around 28, created a permanent standing army of career soldiers, and established a 20-year term of service. To ensure loyalty, Augustus introduced regular pay, land or monetary pensions, and stationed troops in frontier provinces rather than Italy. He also formed the Praetorian Guard, an elite unit tasked with protecting the emperor. By placing military control directly under the emperor, Augustus ensured personal loyalty from the legions, transforming the army into a key tool of imperial authority and frontier stability.
Augustus and the empire
b. The Provinces
Under Augustus, the governance of the provinces was reorganized to strengthen imperial control and reduce corruption. He divided provinces into senatorial and imperial: the Senate controlled peaceful provinces, while Augustus retained direct control over imperial provinces, where most legions were stationed. This allowed him to maintain a strong military presence and tax base without appearing tyrannical. Augustus also appointed loyal governors (legates) and implemented regular censuses and tax reforms to improve efficiency and fairness. His provincial policies brought greater stability and integration across the empire, fostering loyalty to Rome and reinforcing the emperor’s image as a just and effective ruler.
Marcus Antonius “Mark Antony” (Cos. 44, 34; triumvir 43-33)
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) was a close ally of Julius Caesar and served as consul in 44 BCE, the year of Caesar’s assassination. After Caesar’s death, Antony formed the Second Triumvirate (43–33 BCE) with Octavian and Lepidus to defeat Caesar’s assassins and consolidate power. He played a key role in the proscriptions and helped win the Battle of Philippi (42 BCE). However, his alliance with Cleopatra VII of Egypt, both politically and romantically, and his increasing focus on the East alienated many in Rome. Antony’s rivalry with Octavian escalated into the Final War of the Republic, culminating in his defeat at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). He and Cleopatra died by suicide in 30 BCE, clearing the way for Octavian to become Rome’s first emperor. Antony’s career reflects the shift from Republican politics to personal power and civil war.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir 43-36)
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was a Roman politician and general who became the least influential member of the Second Triumvirate alongside Octavian and Mark Antony in 43 BCE. A former ally of Julius Caesar, Lepidus controlled parts of Africa and played a role in the proscriptions and consolidation of power after Caesar’s assassination. However, his political and military influence quickly declined. In 36 BCE, after attempting to challenge Octavian’s authority, Lepidus was stripped of his power and forced into retirement, though he was allowed to retain the title of Pontifex Maximus. His sidelining marked Octavian’s growing dominance and highlighted how the Triumvirate served as a temporary alliance of convenience in the broader struggle for supreme control of Rome.
Marcus Junius Brutus (85-42)
Marcus Junius Brutus was a Roman senator and leading figure in the assassination of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE, believing he was defending the Republic from tyranny. Though once a supporter of Caesar, Brutus saw his growing power as a threat to Roman liberty and joined the conspiracy led by Cassius. After the assassination, Brutus tried to restore the Republic, but public opinion turned against the conspirators. Forced to flee Rome, he and Cassius raised armies in the East but were defeated by Octavian and Mark Antony at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. Brutus committed suicide after the loss. His actions symbolized the last stand of the Republic, but instead of reviving it, his efforts hastened its collapse and the rise of imperial rule.
Gaius Cassius Longinus (85-42)
Gaius Cassius Longinus was a Roman senator, general, and one of the principal leaders of the plot to assassinate Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, alongside Brutus. A seasoned military commander and former supporter of Pompey, Cassius distrusted Caesar’s growing power and saw his dictatorship as a threat to the libertas (freedom) of the Roman Republic. After the assassination, Cassius fled to the East, gathered forces, and joined Brutus in the struggle against the Second Triumvirate. In 42 BCE, their combined forces were defeated by Octavian and Mark Antony at the Battle of Philippi, where Cassius, mistakenly believing Brutus had lost, committed suicide. His death marked the end of serious resistance to the rise of imperial rule.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63)
Marcus Tullius Cicero, elected consul in 63 BCE, was a renowned orator, statesman, and defender of the Roman Republic. During his consulship, he famously suppressed the Catilinarian Conspiracy, exposing a plot to overthrow the government and earning him the title “savior of the Republic.” A staunch supporter of senatorial authority (the optimates) and opponent of populist strongmen like Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Mark Antony, Cicero became increasingly marginalized during the civil wars. After Caesar’s assassination, Cicero supported Octavian against Antony, denouncing Antony in his fiery Philippics. This made him a target: he was executed in 43 BCE during the Second Triumvirate’s proscriptions, his death symbolizing the Republic’s final decline as violence replaced legal order.
Sextus Pompey (67-35)
Sextus Pompey, the youngest son of Pompey the Great, emerged as a key opponent of the Second Triumvirate following Caesar’s assassination. Controlling Sicily and parts of the western Mediterranean, Sextus used his powerful navy to block grain shipments to Rome, threatening the city with famine and positioning himself as a champion of the Republic. Though briefly recognized under a peace treaty in 39 BCE, he was soon declared an enemy again. In 36 BCE, Octavian’s general Agrippa defeated him in a major naval campaign, ending Sextus’s resistance. He fled east but was captured and executed in 35 BCE. His defeat removed the last major Republican threat, further solidifying Octavian’s path to sole rule.
