HI 207 Rome in the first 3 centuries 23 Flashcards
(16 cards)
Politics to 235 C.E.: Succession Problems
Politics to 235 C.E.: . Frontiers
The period before 235 C.E. saw the Roman Empire generally experiencing political stability and expansion under the rule of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the Flavian dynasty, and the Five Good Emperors. However, after the death of Emperor Severus Alexander in 235 C.E., the empire entered a period of instability and civil wars known as the Crisis of the Third Century. This crisis saw a rapid succession of emperors, many of whom were military generals proclaimed by their troops.
Politics to 235 C.E.: Citizenship Expansion
The expansion of Roman citizenship, particularly through the Edict of Caracalla in 212 CE, significantly impacted the political landscape of the Roman Empire. This decree granted citizenship to nearly all free-born residents, impacting not only the concept of citizenship itself, but also the size of the Roman citizen population and the empire’s political and administrative structures. Edict of Caracalla (212 CE):
This edict, formally known as the Constitutio Antoniniana, granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free-born residents of the Roman Empire. Historians believe the edict was motivated by a desire to increase tax revenue, as citizens were subject to a head tax, and to expand the pool of soldiers available for the legions. The edict drastically transformed the landscape of citizenship, expanding it to a wider population and diluting its exclusivity.
Life in the Empire: Economy
Life in the Empire: Society
Life in the Empire: Citizenship
Crisis and Recovery (235-305):Third Century Crisis
The Third Century Crisis (235-284 AD) was a period of severe instability and decline in the Roman Empire, marked by political turmoil, economic hardship, and military challenges. It began with the assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus and saw a succession of emperors, many of whom were generals who seized power through military force, leading to a period often called the “Military Anarchy”. The crisis saw a decline in the Roman economy, marked by inflation, disruptions in trade networks, and agricultural decline. The devaluation of currency and rising prices led to widespread hardship for the populace. The crisis ended with the reforms and policies of Diocletian, who stabilized the empire and laid the groundwork for the Tetrarchy, a system of dual rule with two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesars).
Crisis and Recovery (235-305):. Diocletian (r. 284-305)
This period of instability was reversed under the leadership of Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305), who introduced sweeping reforms to restore order. He created the Tetrarchy, dividing power among four rulers to ensure smoother succession and regional control. Diocletian also restructured the military and strengthened border defenses to address constant external threats. Administratively, he expanded the bureaucracy and split provinces into smaller units for better governance. Economically, he attempted to curb inflation with the Edict on Maximum Prices, freezing wages and prices. Additionally, he launched the Great Persecution of Christians in an effort to enforce religious conformity and reinforce traditional Roman values. Though harsh, Diocletian’s reforms temporarily stabilized the empire and laid the foundation for its continuation, particularly in the East.
Parthian (or Arsacid) Empire (247 BCE – CE 224)
The Parthian Empire (also known as the Arsacid Empire) lasted from 247 BCE to 224 CE and was a powerful rival to Rome in the East. Founded by the Parni tribe under Arsaces I, the Parthians took control of Iran and Mesopotamia from the weakening Seleucid Empire. Their government blended Persian traditions with Hellenistic influences, and they ruled through a decentralized system of vassal kings. The Parthians were famous for their cavalry, especially the horse archers, and their hit-and-run tactics, including the legendary Parthian shot. They clashed frequently with Rome, notably defeating Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BCE). Despite military success, internal divisions and succession struggles weakened them over time, allowing the Sasanian Empire to overthrow them in 224 CE.
Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE)
The Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE) rose after the fall of the Parthians and quickly became Rome’s strongest eastern rival throughout the 3rd century CE and into late antiquity. Founded by Ardashir I, the Sassanids centralized power and promoted Zoroastrianism as the state religion, contrasting with Rome’s increasingly diverse and later Christianized religious landscape. The two empires engaged in frequent and brutal wars, especially over control of Mesopotamia and Armenia, regions vital for trade and military strategy. These conflicts placed heavy military and economic strain on Rome during the Third Century Crisis, weakening its eastern front. Sassanid kings, such as Shapur I, even captured Roman emperors (like Valerian in 260 CE), demonstrating Persian military strength during Rome’s most vulnerable era. While Rome was undergoing internal reform under Diocletian and later Constantine, the Sassanids were also centralizing and expanding, creating a powerful counterweight in the East until their fall to the Islamic Caliphate in 651 CE.
Annona (Grain Dole)
The Annona, or grain dole, was a state-sponsored system that distributed free or subsidized grain—primarily to the urban poor of Rome. It began during the Republic and became essential under the Empire to maintain social stability and prevent unrest among the city’s large, unemployed population. During the 3rd century CE, as Rome faced repeated crises—civil wars, economic breakdown, and external threats—the grain dole became even more critical.
Decuriones/Curiales (the ‘curule’ class)
The Decuriones, or Curiales, were local aristocrats who served on city councils throughout the Roman Empire, especially in the provinces. They were responsible for managing local governance, including tax collection, public works, and organizing games or festivals. In return, they gained social prestige and exemption from certain duties. However, during the 3rd century CE, as the empire descended into political and economic crisis, these responsibilities became a heavy burden. With declining revenues and increased imperial demands, Curiales were often forced to pay deficits out of pocket, turning a once-honorable role into a source of financial ruin. As a result, many tried to flee their obligations, and the imperial government responded by making the role hereditary and legally binding. The struggles of the Curiales reflected the broader breakdown of urban administration and the growing pressure on the local elite as Rome’s central authority weakened.
‘Romanization’
Romanization refers to the process by which conquered peoples across the empire adopted Roman culture, language, institutions, and identity. This included learning Latin or Greek, embracing Roman laws, adopting Roman dress, architecture, and religion, and participating in civic life modeled on Roman traditions. By the 3rd century CE, Romanization had deeply transformed many parts of the empire, especially in the West, where elites increasingly identified with Roman customs. However, the crises of the 3rd century—marked by invasions, economic collapse, and internal division—began to weaken the spread and appeal of Romanization.
Constitutio Antoniniana
The Constitutio Antoniniana, issued by Emperor Caracalla in 212 CE, granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the empire. Caracalla’s decree aimed to unify the empire, increase tax revenue (especially from inheritance and manumission taxes), and expand loyalty to the emperor. This marked a major shift in Roman identity, erasing the sharp divide between Romans and provincials, and accelerating the process of Romanization.
Honestiores and Humiliores
By the 3rd century CE, Roman law split society into two main classes: Honestiores (the elite) and Humiliores (the lower classes). Honestiores—senators, equestrians, and officials—received legal privileges and lighter punishments. In contrast, Humiliores, including laborers and peasants, faced harsher penalties like torture and execution. This division became more pronounced during the Third Century Crisis, as emperors relied on elites to fund the state and enforce order. Even after citizenship was expanded under the Constitutio Antoniniana, equal rights were not guaranteed. The distinction revealed growing social inequality in a struggling empire.
- Tetrarchy
The Tetrarchy was a political system introduced by Emperor Diocletian in 293 CE to restore stability during the Third Century Crisis. It divided the empire between two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesares), each ruling different regions. This structure aimed to improve governance, succession, and defense by addressing multiple threats across the vast empire. While it temporarily stabilized the empire and reduced civil wars, the Tetrarchy eventually collapsed due to rivalries and power struggles. Still, it marked a key shift toward a more bureaucratic and divided imperial structure, shaping the empire’s future under Constantine and beyond.
