HI 207 Decline and Fall? 24 Flashcards
(18 cards)
I. Rise of Christianity
The Rise of Christianity began in the 1st century CE in the Roman province of Judea, centered on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who preached a message of love, salvation, and moral transformation. Initially viewed as a Jewish sect, Christianity spread rapidly through the work of missionaries like Paul of Tarsus, who opened the faith to Gentiles (non-Jews) and helped establish Christian communities across the Roman Empire. Despite periods of persecution—especially under emperors like Nero and Diocletian—Christianity gained followers among the poor, slaves, and women, offering spiritual equality and hope amid imperial instability. Over time, it evolved into a structured religion with its own scriptures and leadership. By the 4th century, under Emperor Constantine, Christianity transitioned from an outlawed faith to an officially favored religion, reshaping Roman culture, politics, and identity.
II. The Fourth Century
a. Constantine (r. 305-337)
Emperor Constantine (r. 305–337 CE) was a transformative figure who reshaped the Roman Empire politically and religiously. After emerging victorious from a series of civil wars—including his famous victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE)—he credited his success to the Christian God and issued the Edict of Milan (313 CE), granting religious tolerance to Christians. Constantine became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, setting the stage for its rise as the empire’s dominant religion. He also restructured the imperial court, expanded bureaucratic control, and founded a new eastern capital at Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), shifting the empire’s power base eastward. Constantine’s reign marked the end of pagan dominance and the beginning of a Christian imperial identity, deeply influencing the future of both the Roman Empire and European civilization.
The Fourth Century
b. Foederati
In the fourth century, the Roman Empire increasingly relied on Foederati—foreign allied tribes, often Germanic, who were granted land or payment in exchange for military service. Rather than fully integrating these groups, Rome treated them as semi-independent allies, allowing them to retain their leaders and customs. This practice reflected the empire’s growing military and economic weaknesses, as it struggled to maintain a professional army. The most notable example was the settlement of the Visigoths inside Roman territory after the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE), where they had defeated a Roman army and killed Emperor Valens. The use of Foederati marked a shift from Roman dominance to increasing dependency on barbarian forces, a development that ultimately weakened imperial authority and contributed to the Western Empire’s collapse in the 5th century.
The Fourth Century
c. Battle of Adrianople (378)
The Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE was a devastating defeat for the Eastern Roman Empire, in which the Visigoths—a group of Foederati—rebelled against Roman mistreatment and crushed a Roman army led by Emperor Valens, who was killed in battle. This marked one of the most significant military disasters in Roman history and exposed the empire’s growing reliance on and vulnerability to barbarian groups within its borders. The defeat shattered the image of Roman military superiority and highlighted the dangers of settling unassimilated foreign peoples in imperial territory. Adrianople signaled the beginning of a new era in which barbarian tribes would play a dominant role in the fate of the Western Roman Empire.
The Fourth Century
d. Fragmentation in the West
By the end of the fourth century, the Western Roman Empire was increasingly fragmented due to internal instability, economic decline, and reliance on Foederati to defend its borders. The central government grew weak as power shifted into the hands of local elites, military commanders, and barbarian generals who often acted independently of the emperor. Key provinces like Britain, Gaul, and Hispania began to drift from imperial control, while ongoing threats from Germanic tribes—especially after the Battle of Adrianople—exposed the West’s military vulnerability. In contrast, the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) remained more stable. This political and military breakdown set the stage for the fifth-century invasions and the eventual collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE.
Decline and Fall?
a. Towards the Middle Ages
As the Western Roman Empire weakened in the fifth century, the Roman world gradually transitioned into what historians call the Middle Ages. Rather than a sudden collapse, this period saw a transformation marked by the decline of centralized imperial authority, the rise of barbarian kingdoms, and the blending of Roman, Christian, and Germanic traditions. Former Roman provinces like Gaul, Hispania, and Italy came under the control of groups such as the Franks, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths, who maintained aspects of Roman governance while developing their own political systems. Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire endured, preserving Roman law, culture, and Christianity. This era laid the foundation for medieval Europe, where the Church emerged as a unifying force amid the fragmentation of secular power.
Decline and Fall?
b. Survival in the East
While the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, the Eastern Roman Empire, known later as the Byzantine Empire, survived and thrived for nearly a thousand more years. Centered in Constantinople, the East maintained stronger urban centers, a more stable economy, and a more effective bureaucracy and military than the West. It preserved Roman law, Greek culture, and Christian traditions, becoming a hub of administrative sophistication and religious authority. Emperors like Justinian I (r. 527–565) attempted to reconquer lost western territories and codified Roman law in the Corpus Juris Civilis, which shaped future European legal systems. The survival of the East ensured the continuity of the Roman legacy, even as Western Europe transitioned into the medieval world.
Decline and Fall?
c. Epilogue
The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE was not the end of Roman civilization but rather a transformation into a new era. While imperial institutions collapsed in the West, Roman culture, law, language, and religion endured—shaped by new rulers and the expanding influence of the Christian Church. In the East, the Byzantine Empire carried forward the Roman legacy, while in the West, Germanic kingdoms adapted Roman models of governance. The “fall” of Rome was less a sudden catastrophe than a gradual shift from a unified empire to a diverse patchwork of medieval societies. This transition laid the foundations for modern Europe, blending Roman order, Christian belief, and barbarian tradition into a new historical chapter: the Middle Ages.
Decian Persecution (250)
The Decian Persecution began in 250 CE under Emperor Decius, who issued an empire-wide edict requiring all citizens to perform sacrifices to the Roman gods and the emperor’s spirit as a show of loyalty. Those who complied received a certificate (libellus), but Christians, who refused on religious grounds, were imprisoned, tortured, or executed. This was the first systematic, empire-wide persecution of Christians and aimed not at eradicating the faith, but at restoring traditional Roman religion to unify the empire during the Third Century Crisis. The persecution exposed internal divisions within the Christian community—between those who resisted and those who lapsed under pressure—and forced the Church to confront questions of forgiveness and leadership. Though the persecution ended shortly after Decius’s death, it marked a turning point in the increasing tension between Christianity and Roman imperial authority.
- The ‘Great’ Persecution (303-305)
The ‘Great’ Persecution, launched by Emperor Diocletian in 303 CE, was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Influenced by his co-emperor Galerius and traditionalist advisors, Diocletian issued a series of edicts ordering the destruction of churches, the burning of scriptures, and the arrest of clergy. Christians were forced to sacrifice to the Roman gods or face imprisonment, torture, or execution. The persecution varied in intensity across regions—harshest in the East and less enforced in the West, especially under Constantius Chlorus in Gaul. Though it failed to destroy Christianity, it tested the resilience of the faith and its followers. The persecution ended with Galerius’s Edict of Toleration in 311, and just two years later, Constantine would legalize Christianity, marking a dramatic shift in the empire’s religious landscape.
- Constantine (r. 306-337)
Emperor Constantine (r. 306–337 CE) was a pivotal figure who reshaped the Roman Empire politically, militarily, and religiously. After emerging victorious from a series of civil wars—including his famous win at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE)—he claimed to have seen a vision of the Christian cross, which led to his conversion to Christianity. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, granting religious tolerance to Christians and ending centuries of persecution. Constantine favored the Church, supported the construction of Christian buildings, and called the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) to address doctrinal disputes. He also founded Constantinople as a new eastern capital, shifting power eastward and laying the foundation for the Byzantine Empire. Constantine’s reign marked the beginning of the Christian Roman Empire, forever transforming its identity and legacy.
- Constantinople
Constantinople was founded by Emperor Constantine in 330 CE on the site of the ancient Greek city Byzantium, strategically located between Europe and Asia. Designed as a “New Rome,” it became the eastern capital of the Roman Empire, symbolizing the shift of power away from Rome itself. The city featured grand architecture, including forums, palaces, and churches, and was heavily fortified, making it a stronghold for centuries. Constantinople became the political, economic, and religious center of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, serving as a key hub for Christian leadership and imperial administration. Its founding marked a turning point in Roman history, reinforcing the division between East and West and ensuring the survival of Roman civilization long after the fall of the Western Empire in 476 CE.
Antonine Plague (165-180)
The Antonine Plague, which struck the Roman Empire between 165 and 180 CE, was likely caused by smallpox and spread by soldiers returning from campaigns in the East. It devastated the population, killing an estimated 5 to 10 million people, including Emperor Lucius Verus, and severely weakened the Roman economy and military. The plague disrupted agriculture, trade, and recruitment, contributing to a decline in imperial stability during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, who struggled to maintain order while also fighting wars on the northern frontier. The Antonine Plague marked one of the first major pandemics in Roman history, exposing the empire’s vulnerability to disease and foreshadowing future crises in the 3rd century.
- Foederati
Foederati were foreign tribes or groups, often Germanic, that entered into formal agreements (foedera) with the Roman Empire to provide military support in exchange for land, payments, or autonomy. Initially used as auxiliary forces, by the 4th and 5th centuries, Foederati became essential to Rome’s defense due to declining native recruitment and growing frontier pressures. However, their semi-independent status and loyalty to their own leaders often undermined Roman control. The settlement of the Visigoths after the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE) exemplified this shift. Over time, some Foederati—like the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths—would establish their own kingdoms within the empire, contributing directly to the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire.
- Eastern Roman Empire
The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, survived the fall of the West in 476 CE and continued for nearly a thousand years. With its capital at Constantinople, the East had stronger urban centers, economic stability, and administrative efficiency, allowing it to resist the internal decay and external invasions that plagued the West. The empire preserved Roman law, Greek culture, and Christian religion, becoming a center of Orthodox Christianity and imperial authority. Emperors like Justinian I worked to reconquer lost western territories and codified Roman law in the Corpus Juris Civilis. The Eastern Empire played a crucial role in preserving the legacy of Rome and served as a bridge between the classical and medieval worlds until its fall in 1453.
- Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire, centered in Rome and later Ravenna, began to decline in the late 3rd and 4th centuries CE due to a combination of political instability, economic weakness, military defeats, and growing reliance on Foederati. Unlike the East, the West struggled to maintain control over its provinces, facing repeated invasions by Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths. Key events like the sack of Rome in 410 CE and the deposition of the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 CE, marked its symbolic end. However, the fall was not sudden—it was a gradual fragmentation of Roman authority, as barbarian kingdoms replaced imperial rule. Despite its collapse, the Western Empire’s legacy lived on through the Catholic Church, Roman law, Latin language, and cultural traditions in medieval Europe.
- Battle of Adrianople (378)
The Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE was a catastrophic defeat for the Eastern Roman Empire, in which the Visigoths decisively defeated a Roman army led by Emperor Valens, who was killed in battle. The Visigoths had been admitted into the empire as Foederati, but mistreatment by Roman officials led to rebellion. The battle exposed the empire’s overreliance on barbarian troops, the weaknesses of Roman military leadership, and the vulnerability of the empire’s borders. Adrianople shattered the myth of Roman invincibility and marked a turning point in late antiquity, signaling the decline of Roman military dominance and the beginning of growing barbarian influence within the empire.
Sack of Rome (410; 455)
The Sack of Rome in 410 CE by the Visigoths under Alaric was the first time the city had fallen to a foreign enemy in over 800 years, shocking the Roman world and symbolizing the empire’s weakening authority. Though relatively restrained, the event deeply damaged Rome’s prestige. Later, in 455 CE, the city was sacked again—this time by the Vandals under Genseric, who looted it more thoroughly, reinforcing the perception of a crumbling Western Roman Empire. These invasions revealed Rome’s inability to defend its own capital and marked the progressive loss of imperial control. They also accelerated the fragmentation of the West, paving the way for the final collapse in 476 CE.
