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BIOLOGY > Hormones and Fertility - TOPIC 7 > Flashcards

Hormones and Fertility - TOPIC 7 Flashcards

1
Q

what are hormones

A

chemical messengers which travel in the blood to activate cells in target organs

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2
Q

where are hormones produced

A

endocrine glands

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3
Q

what is the endocrine system using hormones for

A

to react to changes in the environment or changes inside the body

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4
Q

what are the six glands in the endocrine system

A

pituitary gland
thyroid gland
pancreas
adrenal glands
ovaries
testes

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5
Q

what does the thyroid gland do

A

produce thyroxine which is involved in regulating things like rate of metabolism and heart rate

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6
Q

what does the pancreas produce

A

insulin

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7
Q

what do adrenal glands produce

A

adrenaline which is used to prepare the body for a flight or fight response

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8
Q

what do the ovaries do

A

produce oestrogen which is involved in the menstrual cycle

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9
Q

what do the testes do

A

produce testosterone which controls puberty and sperm production in males

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10
Q

differences between nerves and hormones

A

nerves are faster
nerves act for a shorter time
nerves act on a precise area

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11
Q

when and how is adrenaline released

A

in response to stressful or scary situations. The brain detects fear or stress and sends nervous impulses to the adrenal glands which respond by releasing adrenaline

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12
Q

how does adrenaline get the body ready for flight or fight

A

by triggering mechanisms that increase the supply of oxygen and glucose to cells

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13
Q

what happens when adrenaline binds to specific receptors in the heart, to heart rate and blood pressure

A

heart muscle contract more frequently and with more force so the heart rate and blood pressure increase

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14
Q

what happens when heart rate and blood pressure increases from adrenaline

A

increase in blood flow to muscles, so cells receive more oxygen and glucose for increased respiration and this gives the muscles extra energy for muscle contraction

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15
Q

how does adrenaline cause increase in glucose

A

adrenaline binds to receptors in the liver and this causes liver to break down its glycogen stores to release glucose.

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16
Q

what is glucose released from adrenaline used for

A

it is used to fuel muscle contraction in the fight or flight response

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17
Q

what does thyroxine do

A

regulate basal metabolic rate

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18
Q

what is negative feedback

A

when levels of certain substance in the body go above or below a normal level, the body triggers responses that help to bring these levels into a normal range

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19
Q

what does negative feedback system do to amount of thyroxine in blood

A

keep it at the right level

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20
Q

what happens when level of thyroxine in blood is lower than normal

A

The hypothalamus is stimulated to release TRH
TRH stimulates the pituitary gland to release TSH
TSH stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroxine
So, blood thyroxine level rises back to normal

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21
Q

what happens when level of thyroxine in blood is higher than normal

A

release of TRH from hypothalamus is inhibited (stopped) and this reduces the amount of thyroxine released form thyroid gland and so level of thyroxine falls.

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22
Q

what is the menstrual cycle

A

monthly sequence of events in which the female body releases an egg and prepares the uterus in case the egg is fertilised

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23
Q

how long is the menstrual cycle

A

28 days

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24
Q

what happens in stage 1 of the menstrual cycle (day 1 to 4)

A

day 1 is when menstruation/ bleeding starts and uterus lining breaks down and is released

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25
Q

what happens in stage 2 of the menstrual cycle

A

lining of uterus is repaired, from day 4 - 14, and ready for a fertilised egg to implant there

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26
Q

what happens in stage 3 of the menstrual cycle

A

an egg is released from the ovary at day 14 which is also known as ovulation

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27
Q

what happens in stage 4 of the menstrual cycle

A

lining is then maintained for about 14 days until 28 days.

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28
Q

what happens if no fertilised egg has landed on the uterus wall by day 28

A

spongy lining starts to break down again and the whole cycle starts again

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29
Q

hormones in the menstrual cycle

A

oestrogen and progesterone

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30
Q

what does oestrogen do

A

stimulate the growth of the uterus lining during stage 2 of the menstrual cycle

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31
Q

what does progesterone do

A

maintain the uterus lining during stage 4 and stops the release of FSH and LH

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32
Q

what does follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) do

A

causes a follicle to mature in one of the ovaries and stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen

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33
Q

what does luteinising hormone (LH) do

A

stimulate the release of an egg at day 14 / ovulation

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34
Q

what happens when the level of progesterone falls and there is a low oestrogen level

A

uterus lining breaks down and low progesterone level allows FSH to increase and therefore allows the whole cycle to start again

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35
Q

why does level of progesterone stay high during pregnancy

A

to maintain the lining of the uterus during pregnancy

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36
Q

what does infertile mean

A

they cannot reproduce naturally

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37
Q

what happens if women have FSH level that is too low

A

eggs cannot mature and therefore no eggs are released and women can’t get pregnant

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38
Q

what are the 2 hormonal ways people can use to get pregnant

A

clomifene therapy
IVF ( in vitro fertilisation)

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39
Q

what does clomifene do

A

it is a drug, which works by causing more FSH and LH to be released by the body, which stimulates egg maturation and ovulation

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40
Q

how does IVF work

A

it involves collecting eggs from the woman’s ovaries and fertilising them in a lab using the man’s sperm. Fertilised eggs are then grown into embryos and once they are tiny balls of cells, one or two of them are transferred to the womens uterus

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41
Q

why is FSH and LH given before egg collection in IVF

A

to stimulate egg production so more than one egg can be collected

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42
Q

what are contraceptives used for

A

preventing pregnancy

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43
Q

why is oestrogen and progesterone used as contraceptives

A

they reduce the fertility

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44
Q

how does oestrogen prevent egg release and pregnancy

A

if taken every day to keep the level of oestrogen permanently high, it stops FSH production and after a while egg maturation and therefore egg release stop and stay stopped

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45
Q

how does progesterone reduce fertility

A

stimulates production of thick cervical mucus which prevents any sperm getting through the entrance to uterus and reaching an egg and it can also stop egg maturation

46
Q

forms of hormonal contraceptive

A

the combined pill is an oral contraceptive
mini pill which is oestrogen only pill
contraceptive patch
contraceptive injection

47
Q

what does barrier forms of contraceptive mean

A

there is a barrier between sperm and egg so they do not meet

48
Q

different barrier methods of contraception

A

condoms (male and female)
diaphragm

49
Q

why are hormonal methods more effective than barrier methods at preventing pregnancy

A

more effective when used correctly and people do not need to think about contraception every time they have intercourse

50
Q

why are hormonal methods bad

A

they have unpleasant side effects such as headaches and acne and mood change and they do not protect against STI

51
Q

what is homeostasis

A

the regulation of the conditions inside your body to maintain a constant internal environment, in response to changes in both internal and external conditions

52
Q

examples of homeostasis

A

osmoregulation
thermoregulation
blood glucose regulation

53
Q

what do negative feedback systems do

A

help to keep conditions in your body steady.

54
Q

what monitors blood glucose levels

A

the pancreas, by producing hormones

55
Q

what hormone is produced by the pancreas

A

insulin

56
Q

what does insulin do to blood glucose levels

A

decreases blood glucose levels when they get too high

57
Q

describe how insulin decreases blood glucose levels when they get too high

A

when blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas detects this rise.

the pancreas responds by producing insulin, which is secreted into the blood

insulin causes the body cells to take up more glucose from the blood. Cells in the liver and muscles can take up glucose and convert it into glycogen

this causes the blood glucose level to fall

58
Q

where is glycogen produced

A

by the pancreas

59
Q

what does glycogen do

A

it increases the blood glucose level when it gets too low

60
Q

describe how does glucagon cause blood glucose level to increase

A

the fall in blood glucose level is detected by the pancreas

the pancreas responds by producing glucagon, which is secreted into the blood

glucagon causes the glycogen stored in the liver and muscles to be converted back into glucose, which enters the blood

this causes the blood glucose level to rise

61
Q

what is type 1 diabetes

A

a condition where the pancreas produces little or no insulin which can make the blood glucose level rise to a level which can kill the person

62
Q

how is type 1 diabetes treated

A

with insulin injections and their doses depend on their diet and activity levels

63
Q

what is type 2 diabetes

A

a condition where the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or when a person becomes resistant to their own insulin

64
Q

what is the risk factor of type 2 diabetes

A

being overweight and obese

65
Q

how to control type 2 diabetes

A

eating a healthy diet, regular exercise and losing weight if needed

66
Q

what is the equation for BMI

A

mass / (height)^2

67
Q

what is the equation for waist to hip ratio

A

waist circumference / hip circumference

68
Q

what is the importance of homeostasis

A

it constantly balances the amount of energy gained and lost to keep the core body temperature at 37 degrees celsius

69
Q

how is the temperature of the body kept around a constant level

A

due to a negative feedback system which make the body bring the temp of the body back to the optimum if it gets too high or low

70
Q

what does the thermoregulatory centre do

A

it acts as your own personal thermostat

71
Q

what do the epidermis and dermis do

A

receptors are found in them, which send information about skin temperature via nervous impulses

72
Q

what does the hypothalamus do

A

it processes the information from the temperature receptors and triggers the effectors immediately

73
Q

what is vasodilation

A

when the blood vessels supplying the skin capillaries get wider so more blood flows close to the surface of the skin

74
Q

what are the ways your body respond when your core body temperature gets too high

A
  1. Erector muscles in the dermis relax
  2. Sweating
  3. Vasodilation
75
Q

how does the body respond to a rise in body temp

A

when temperature receptors detect that core body temp is too high , they send inpulses to the hypothalamus, which coordinates the response.

The hypothalamus processes the information from the temp receptors and triggers the effectors immediately

The effectors produce a response that increases the amount of heat lost from the body and cools it down

76
Q

how does the body respond to a fall in body temp

A

when the temp receptors detect that body temp is too low, they send impulses to hypothalamus

This processes the info and triggers the effectors to reduce the amount of heat lost from the body

the effectors produce a response that counteracts the change and the body warms up

77
Q

what are the different responses that increase core body temperature

A
  1. erector muscles in dermis contract
  2. very little sweat is produced
  3. Vasoconstriction
  4. shivering
78
Q

why must water content of the blood be controlled

A

in order to keep the cells functioning normally

79
Q

what happens if the conc of water in the blood is too high

A

water will move into the body cells by osmosis and if too much water moves into cells, they may burst

80
Q

what happens if the concentration of water in the blood is too low

A

water will move out of cells and into the blood by osmosis which will cause the cells to shrink

81
Q

how does the kidney help regulate the water content

A

by controlling how much water is reabsorbed and how much water is lost in urine

82
Q

how is urea produced

A

from the breakdown of excess amino acids in the liver

83
Q

what is ultrafiltration

A

when substances are filtered out of the blood as it passes through the kidneys

84
Q

what is selective reabsorption

A

useful substances including all the glucose, some ions and right amount of water are then reabsorbed back into the blood

85
Q

what are nephrons

A

structures in the kidneys where ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption takes place

86
Q

how is the structure of the nephron related to filtration

A

filtration takes place in the glomerulus which is found at the start of the nephron.

Urea, water, ions and glucose are small enough to pass out of the capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule however proteins and cells are too big and stay in the blood

87
Q

how is the structure of the nephron related to its function of selective reabsorption of glucose and ions

A

the substances in the bowman’s capsule move into the tubule. At the proximal convoluted tubule, the amount of glucose lost in filtration is selectively reabsorbed back into the blood

88
Q

how is the structure of the nephron related to its function of reabsorption of water and ions

A

water and ions are reabsorbed at the loop of Henle and collecting duct areas of the tubule

89
Q

how is urine released

A

the urea, excess water and ions which aren’t reabsorbed from the nephron into the blood continues out of the nephron via the collecting duct.

It then passes into the ureter and down to the bladder as urine and urine is released from the bladder through the urethra

90
Q

what happens to ADH if water potential of the blood is too high

A

less ADH is released from the pituitary gland and the collecting duct becomes less permeable to water and this leads to more water being released in urination

91
Q

what happens to ADH if water potential of the blood is too low

A

more ADH is released from the pituitary gland and the collecting duct becomes more permeable to water and so less water is released in urination.

92
Q

what are the treatments for kidney failure

A

kidney dialysis and kidney transplants

93
Q

what does a dialysis machine do

A

it takes over the role of the failing kidneys and filters the blood.

94
Q

why does dialysis have to been done regularly

A

to keep the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood at normal levels and to remove waste products

95
Q

how does a dialysis machine work

A

in the machine, the persons blood flows along a partially permeable membrane, surrounded by dialysis fluid.

The membrane allows things like ions and waste products through but not big molecules.

The dialysis fluid has the same conc of ions and glucose as healthy blood so that useful dissolved ions and glucose wont be lost from the blood and only waste substances and excess water and ions

96
Q

what is the problem with kidney transplants

A

the donor kidney can be rejected by the recipients immune system

97
Q

why does kidney rejection happen

A

antigens on the donor kidneys are not recognised as being part of the body by the recipients white blood cells and so the WBC produce antibodies to attack the donor cells

98
Q

how can you prevent rejection of the donor kidney

A

the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system as they reduce the production of antibodies by the WBC’s

a donor with a tissue type that closely matches the patient’s is chosen

99
Q

how does shivering increase core body temperature

A

increased muscle contractions which generates more heat from respiration

100
Q

how does vasoconstriction increase core body temperature

A

it reduces the amount of blood that flows close to the surface of the skin and so less energy is transferred from skin to environment

101
Q

how does erector muscles in dermis contracting increase core body temperature

A

it makes hairs on skin stand up. This traps insulating layer of air next to skin reducing energy transferred to environment

102
Q

how does Erector muscles in the dermis relaxing decrease core body temperature

A

makes hairs on the skin lie flat and this means less air is trapped near the surface of the skin. This allows heat to be transferred to the environment easily

103
Q

how does sweating DECREASE core body temperature

A

Sweat is produced by sweat glands in the dermis and released onto the surface of the skin through pores in the epidermis. When sweat evaporates from the skin, it transfers energy to the environment, reducing body temp

104
Q

positives of kidney dialysis

A

no shortage of dialysis machines

105
Q

negatives of kidney dialysis

A

requires frequent treatment
have to eat controlled diet
expensive in the long term

106
Q

positives of kidney transplant

A

patients can lead a normal life
only expensive initially

107
Q

negatives of kidney transplant

A

shortage of kidney donors
have to take anti rejection drugs for the rest of your life

108
Q

What happens in filtration

A

filtration, or ultrafiltration, occurs in the glomerulus, a collection of capillaries at the start of the nephron. Urea, water, ions and glucose are small enough to pass out of the capillaries and through the membrane into the Bowman’s capsule - however proteins and cells are too large, and remain in the blood)

109
Q

What happens in selective reabsorption

A

The substances in the Bowman’s capsule move into the tubule. At a point called the proximal convoluted tubule (the first ‘bend’ in the tubule), as much glucose as was lost during ultrafiltration is selectively reabsorbed into the blood.

This is important, as glucose is valuable to the body for energy (from respiration) and we do not want it to be excreted.

110
Q

What happens in reabsorption of water and ions

A

water and ions are reabsorbed at the Loop of Henle and collecting duct areas of the tubule.

BIOLOGY (9 decks)

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