Human Development and Behavior in the Social Environment Flashcards
1
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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A division of the peripheral nervous system that is involved in the control of visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). Consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
2
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Buffering Hypothesis
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The hypothesis that lower susceptibility to stress, greater life satisfaction, and other positive outcomes are associated with a perception that one has adequate social support
3
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Coercive Family Interaction Model
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Proposes that children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, reward their children’s aggressiveness with approval and attention and that, over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate. Patterson and colleagues developed a parent intervention designed to stop this coercive cycle by teaching parents child-management skills and providing them with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress
4
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Contact Hypothesis
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Proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups as long as certain conditions are met (e.g., members of the different groups have equal status and power and are provided with opportunities that disconfirm their negative stereotypes about members of the other group)
5
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Differential Reinforcement
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Differential reinforcment (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when he/she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior. The alternative behaviors are reinforced, while the target behavior is extinguished
6
Q
Ego
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As defined by Freud, the structure of the psyche that attempts to deal with reality in a practical, rational way (secondary process thinking) and that mediates the conflicting demands of the id, the superego, and reality; the “executive function” of the personality. Operates on the basis of the reality principle
7
Q
FI (Fixed Interval) Schedule
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In operant conditioning, an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the subject is reinforced for each predetermined interval of time in which he/she makes at least one response. Associated with a “scallop” on the cumulative recording of the subject’s responses
8
Q
Genotype Versus Phenotype
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Genotype’ refers to a person’s genetic make-up; “phenotype” refers to observable characteristics, which are due to a combination of genetic and environment factors.
9
Q
Hemispheric Specialization
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Although the left and right hemispheres of the brain are both involved to some degree in most functions, they tend to specialize. The left (dominant) hemisphere dominates in verbal activities (e.g., spontaneous speaking and writing, memory for words and numbers); analytical, logical thought; and positive emotional states. The right (nondominant) hemisphere dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation, and memory for shapes and in negative emotions
10
Q
Hyperthyroidism
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A condition caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and characterized by a speeded-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, nervousness, and insomnia
11
Q
Institutional Racism
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The denial or restriction of material conditions (e.g., access to health care) and access to power to members of minority groups
12
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Latent Learning (Tolman)
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Proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in actual performance improvement. Tolman’s research showed that rats formed “cognitive maps” of mazes even without being reinforced for doing so.
13
Q
Natural Social Networks
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Consist of family, friends, neighbors, and coworkers who exchange emotional support and other resources in times of need. When effective, they make it unnecessary for an individual to turn to institutionalized services offered by social agencies. Because geographically dispersed social networks depend on linkages such as transportation, they may be vulnerable in times of crisis
14
Q
Norms
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The standard rules of conduct used by groups to maintain uniformity of behavior among group members. Norms may be formal (codified or written) or informal (unwritten but “understood” by group members). Norms do not govern all aspects of behavior, only those considered by the group to be important for effective group functioning. In addition, norms usually apply to behavior not to personal feelings and thoughts
15
Q
P.L. 94-142 (Education For All Handicapped Children Act)
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Guarantees an appropriate free public education to all children ages 3 to 21 who need special education services. An individualized educational program (IEP) must be developed for each student with a qualifying disability. The IEP is written by schoo; personnel in collaboration with the student’s parents and must provide the least restrictive environment for the student ( the environment must be as similar as possible to the regular classroom setting, taking into account the nature of the student’s disability). Over time, P.L. 94-142 has been amended, and in 1990, it was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, (P.L. 101-476)
16
Q
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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Potential cause of intellectual disability due to an inability to metabolize the amino acid phenyalanine. Can be prevented by providing a diet low in phenylalanine
17
Q
Percipitating Factor (Crisis)
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The final stressful event in in a series of events that moves a person from a state of acute vulnerability into crisis. The precipitating factor is often a minor event but it can assume catastrophic proportions in the context of other stressful events and the person’s inability to use his/her usual problem-solving strategies
18
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Protective Factors
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Protective factors coexisting with risks are personal, social, and institutional factors that promote personal competence and successful development and, thereby, decrease the likelihood of a problem occurring. Examples include adequate prenatal care, active coping mechanisms, and low family stress
19
Q
Racism (Levels of Racism)
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Racism is a system of power and privilege that may be manifested in attitudes, behaviors, and/or institutional structures based on people’s skin color. Levels of racism include institutional racism (denial or restriction of material conditions and access to power to members of minority groups); personally mediated racism (prejudice and discrimination at the individual level); and internalized racism (acceptance by members of the stigmatized races of negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth)
20
Q
Rutter’s Indicators
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Rutter argues that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. He concludes that the following six family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology: severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and the placement of a child outside the home
21
Q
Separation Anxiety
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A normal fear response exhibited by a young child when he/she is separated from his/her mother or other primary caregiver. Begins at about 6 to 8 months, increases in intensity at about 14 to 18 months, and thereafter declines
22
Q
Sociocultural Risk
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Exists when a child lacks the basic material, social, and psychological necessities of life (e.g., food, water, shelter, love, and affection, medical care, educational stimulation, positive social interactions). Children (and adults) who lack all or some of these necessities are at risk for impaired development and other deficiencies. Two key sources of sociocultural risk are “social impoverishment” (lack of critical social resources in a child’s life) and “cultural impoverishment” (values that undermine a child’s healthy development)
23
Q
Superego
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For Freud, the structure of the psyche that represents society’s standards of right and wrong (the conscience) and the individual’s own aims and aspirations (ego ideal). Develops at age 4 or 5 years, primarily as the result of identification with one’s parents
24
Q
Unconditioned Response (UR)
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In classical conditioning, the response naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US) without conditioning
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Accommodation (Piaget)
The modification of existing cognitive schemas to incorporate new knowledge
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Bases of Social Power
Methods used to induced compliance in another person. Include coercive, reward, expert, legitimate, referent, and informational.
27
Case Management
A procedure used to identify, plan, access, coordinate, and monitor services from different social agencies and staff on behalf of a client. Clients needing case management services usually have multiple problems that require assistance from multiple providers, several problems that need to be addressed at the same time, and special difficulties in seeking and using help effectively
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger's theory of attitude change that proposes that inconsistencies in cognitions produce discomfort (dissonance), which motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance, often by changing his/her cognitions
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Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, providing reinforcement after each emission of the target response. Associated with rapid acquisition of a response and susceptibility to extinction
30
Diminished Capacity To Parent (Wallerstein)
The deterioration in the relationships between children and their parents following divorce. Following divorce, mothers and fathers spend less time with their children, are less sensitive to their children, have trouble separating their own needs from the needs of the children, and are often inconsistent, but more restrictive and demanding, in terms of control and punishment
31
Ego Functions
Include self-regulation and self-control; judgment; reality testing capacity; thought processes (cognitive functioning); capacity for interpersonal relationships (object relations); Integrative functioning (synthesis); and defensive functioning (ego defense mechanisms). When healthy ego functions are characteristic of a person's longterm and current functioning (i.e., they don't disappear under conditions of stress), they are associated with effective functioning and a subjective sense of personal well-being. Generally, a social worker evaluates a client's ego functioning as it relates to the problem areas he/she has identified
32
Field Theory
Lewin's theory of human behavior describes it as a product of interdependent factors in the person and his physical and social environment
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Goodness-Of-Fit Model (Thomas And Chess)
Proposes that behavioral and adjustment outcomes are best for children when parents' caregiving behaviors match the child's temperament
34
Heteronomous Versus Autonomous Morality
Piaget distinguished between two stages of moral development. The stage of "heteronomous morality" (morality of constraint) extends from about age 7 through age 10. During this stage, children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable. When judging whether an act is "right" or "wrong" they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are. Beginning at about age 11, children enter the stage of "autonomous morality" (morality of cooperation). Children in this stage view rules as being arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intention of the actor than on the act's consequences
35
Hypoglycemia
Low blood glucose. A condition caused by excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas and characterized by hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion
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Institutional Social Services
Social services provided by major public service systems that administer benefits such as financial assistance, housing programs, health care, or education
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Law of Effect (Thorndike)
Thorndyke's law of effect proposes that, when behaviors are followed by "satisfying consequences" they are more likely to increase or occur again
38
Need Hierarchy Theory
Maslow's theory of motivation, which proposes that five basic needs are arranged in a hierarchical order such that a need higher in the hierarchy doesn't serve as a source of motivation until all lower needs have been fulfilled. From the lowest level to the highest level, the five basic needs defined by Maslow are survival and physiological needs; safety and security needs; social (belonging) needs; esteem (ego) needs; and self-actualization needs
39
Object Constancy
A permanent sense of self and object (other) that develops at about age 3
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Parasympathetic Division
The division of the autonomic nervous system involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation. Activation of the parasympathetic division is associated with a slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system
41
Physical Abuse (Children)
The non accidental physical injury to a child caused by a parent or other caregiver. May result from an act of commission or from an act of omission (e.g., failure to protect the child). Occurs across all socioeconomic classes but a disproportionate number of known cases (i.e., reported cases, or those that come to the attention of authorities) involve low-income families. Perpetrators of child physical abuse are more often female than male; and young, low-income, single mothers with young children are at greatest risk of abusing their children.
42
Preconventional Morality
According to Kohlberg, the first level of moral development in which judgments of right and wrong are based on consequences and personal needs. Includes the punishment-obedience and instrumental hedonism stages. Characteristic of childhood
43
Protective Services
Intervention on behalf of individuals who are or may be in danger of harm from others or who are unable to care for themselves (e.g., children, the elderly, the disabled). The main activities include investigating situations in which a person is alleged to be at risk, minimizing further risk, improving current conditions, accessing resources, and facilitating placement in alternative environments when necessary
44
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
(AKA Rational emotive therapy or RET) From the perspective of REBT, behavior is a chain of events -A,B, and C - where A is the external event to which the individual is exposed; B is the belief the individual has about A; and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B. In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself. According to Ellis, the founder of REBT, the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs and these beliefs are the appropriate target of therapy
45
Satiation
Satiation is the condition of being satisfied or gratified with regard to a particular reinforcer. Satiation is a problem with continuous reinforcement and with the use of primary (unconditioned) reinforcers. Satiation must be distinguished from habituation, which is the process of becoming accustomed (physiologically nonreactive) to a stimulus as the result of prolonged exposure to that stimulus
46
Separation-Individuation
According to Mahler, the development of object relations occurs during a developmental stage termed separation-individuation, which begins at about 4 months. Separation refers to the development of limits or the differentiation between the infant (self) and the mother; and individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities
47
Somatic Nervous System
Consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body's sense receptors to the central nervous system (CNS) and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The SNS governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary
48
Superordinate Goals
Goals that can be achieved only when individuals or members of different groups work together cooperatively. These have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict
49
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally elicits the target response (unconditioned response, UR) without conditioning. In Pavlov's original studies, meat powder was the US and salivation was the UR
50
Anomie
A social condition that may develop when a society or community experiences unusual stress. Is characterized by a lack societal norms, a lack of social structure, and, among individuals, apathy, isolation, and a loss of personal and social values
51
Behavioral Addiction
A recurring compulsion by an individual to engage in a specific activity (e.g., shopping) despite harmful consequences, as identified by the person, to his/her physical health, psychological or emotional well-being, and/or social functioning
52
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The nerve cells, fibers, and tissues that make up the spinal cord and brain
53
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus (CS) as the result of pairing the CS with an unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned response is similar to, but not identical to, the unconditioned response (it is usually weaker in strength or magnitude)
54
Cycle of Violence (Walker)
A three-stage cycle of violence that describes many abusive spousal/partner relationships. Includes tension building, acute battering incident, and loving contrition ("honeymoon")
55
Down Syndrome
Autosomal disorder usually caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21. The cause of 10 to 30 percent of all cases of mild to moderate intellectual disability. Associated with physical abnormalities including slanted, almond-shaped eyes, heart lesions, cataracts, and respiratory defects
56
Equity Theory
A theory of motivation that predicts that motivation (e.g., motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by the comparison of input/outcome ratios
57
Functional Community
A community defined in terms of a purpose, function, or problem that needs to be addressed. Social workers, for example, belong to the welfare or human services functional community
58
Groupthink
Mode of group thinking in which group members' desires for unanimity and cohesiveness override their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. Can be alleviated by encouraging dissent, having someone play devil's advocate, and refraining from reaching a decision or solution too quickly
59
Hospitalism
A term used by Spitz to describe the syndrome found in infants who have been separated from their mothers or other primary caregiver. Symptoms include listlessness, unresponsiveness, indifference, and retarded growth
60
Identity Statuses (Marcia)
Marcia proposes that the achievement of an identity (including values, beliefs, and goals) involves four stages that take place primarily during adolescence and young adulthood; diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement
61
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement that is not continuous. Includes fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio schedules. Associated with greater resistance to extinction than a continuous schedule
62
Maturational (Developmental) Crises
A crisis in which the origin is embedded in maturational processes - i.e., the person struggles with an anticipated transition from one life stage or role to another
63
Neuron
The nerve cell specialized for the conduction of electrochemical signals that carry information from one part of the body to another (e.g., from the brain to the muscles, from the sensory organs to the brain). Is made up dendrites, the soma (cell body), and an axon
64
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behaviors are increased or decreased as the result of the consequences (reinforcements or punishments) that follow them
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Participant Modeling
A technique based on observational learning theory in which a model demonstrates the desired behavior and then helps the individual to gradually imitate the modeled behavior
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Positive Punishment
In operant conditioning, the application of a stimulus following a response with the goal of reducing or eliminating the response
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Primary (Unconditioned) Reinforcer
A stimulus that has reinforcing value without conditioning (learning). Examples include food and water
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Psychosocial Development
Erik son's theory of personality development, which proposes that an individual faces different social crises at different points (stages) throughout the life span. These stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair
69
Resilience (Werner and Smith)
Longitudinal research by Werner and Smith suggests that exposure to early (prenatal and perinatal) stress may be ameliorated when the baby experiences fewer stressors following birth, exhibits good communication skills and social responsiveness, and receives stable support from a parent or other caregiver
70
School Social Work
Social work practice in school settings that emphasizes enabling students to learn and function in the school environment. The school social worker mobilizes all facets of a student's life situation in an effort to foster a supportive learning environment for the student and serves as a vital link between the student's school, home, and community. School social workers adopt a strengths-based and empowerment approach to their practice; they seek to identify and build on existing strengths within students and the social systems in which students must function
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Social Agency
An organization of facility that delivers social services under the auspices of a board of directors and provides a range of social services for members of a population group that has or is vulnerable to a specific social problem
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Stimulus Discrimination and Experimental Neurosis
In classical conditioning, stimulus discrimination training is used to teach an organism to respond with a CR only in the presence of certain stimuli - i.e., in the presence of the original CS. Sometimes, when discriminations are difficult, the organism will exhibit "experimental neurosis" (i.e., it will exhibit unusual behaviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear)
73
Symbolic (Representational) Thought
The ability to use words, actions, and other symbols to represent objects and experiences. Emerges at the end of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of development. Also referred to as the "symbolic capacity"
74
VR (Variable Ratio) Schedule
In operant conditioning, an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying number of responses (with the average number of responses being predetermined). Associated with a high, stable rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction
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Aphasia
Impairment in the production and/or comprehension of language. Broca's aphasia involves difficulty producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble understanding language. Wernicke's aphasia is characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language
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Biopsychosocial Approach
Assumes that biophysical, psychological, and social factors all play an important role in human functioning and encourages social workers to consider and integrate a broad of range of influences when evaluating a client's development and behavior at all levels (individual, family, community, etc.) and to examine a client's appraisals of these influences and reactions to them in terms of physiology, emotion, cognition, and behavior
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Cerebral Cortex
The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Involved in higher-order sensory, emotional, motor, and intellectual activities. Divided into two hemispheres (right and left), with each containing four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal. and occipital
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus that, as the result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, now elicits a conditioned response (CR)
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Deindividuation
A state of relative anonymity that allows group members to feel unidentifiable. Has been associated with increases in antisocial behaviors, apparently because the deindividuated person's behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear of evaluation, or other inhibitory controls
80
Ecological Systems Perspective
Framework combining systems theory and ecological concepts that advocates a transactional view of the person-environment relationship. The transactional view suggests that a person and his/her environment are engaged in constant circular exchanges in which each is reciprocally shaping and influencing the other over time. Transactions between a person's coping patterns and the qualities of his/her environment constitute a person-situation duality. In social work, the objective is to help people find ways of meeting their needs (of achieving an adaptive person-environment fit) by connecting them to needed resources and by improving their capacity to use resources and cope with negative environmental influences
81
Failure To Thrive
Occurs when a baby's weight falls below the 5th percentile for his/her age. In 'organic failure to thrive,' there is an underlying medical condition that causes the slowed rate of growth. In 'nonorganic failure to thrive,' no medical cause can be found. Risk factors for nonorganic failure to thrive include maternal childhood deprivation, the infant's temperament (i.e., he/she is difficult to feed), and certain family characteristics such as high levels of stress, parents who don't understand the baby's nutritional needs, and poverty
82
Gain-Loss Theory
A theory of attraction proposing that liking is related to the pattern rather than the amount of rewards. The theory suggests that people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increased liking for them and to be least attracted to individuals who show decreased liking for them
83
Habituation
Habituation may occur when using punishment if the punishment is initially delivered at low intensity and thereafter gradually increased in intensity
84
Human Plasticity
The concept that variations in the environment can affect a person's personality, cognitive and social functioning, and physical and mental health, independent of his/her genetic endowment. Describes one way that the environment can influence development over the lifespan
85
Indian Child Welfare Act
Gives tribes in the U.S. control over the option of Native American children. Adoptions involving Native American children require a release from the birth parents and the tribe, and the tribe may veto the adoption of a Native American baby by a non-Native American family (even if the birth family has agreed to the adoption) and place the child with a Native American family
86
Isolation of Affect
A defense mechanism. Involves severing the conscious psychological connection between an unacceptable impulse or behavior and its original memory source; the person remembers the experience but separates it from the affect associated with it
87
McKinney Act
Federal response to homelessness which called for the establishment of programs providing specific services to homeless individuals to help them regain their independence (e.g., emergency shelter, transitional and permanent housing, job training, primary health care, education)
88
Neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, GABA)
These are chemicals inside neurons that, when released, allow neurons to communicate with and affect each other. (a) Acetylcholine (Ach) is involved in memory, and deterioration of neurons that secrete Ach has been linked to Alzheimer's disease. (b) Dopamine is involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Elevated levels have been linked to schizophrenia and Tourette's disorder. (c) Serotonin is involved in the regulation of mood, hinger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain. Elevated levels contribute to schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Low levels play a role in depressive disorders, suicide, PTSD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and aggression. (d) GABA is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures
89
Operant Extinction
In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the elimination of a previously reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response. Operant extinction is usually associated with a temporary increase in the response (an 'extinction burst')
90
Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth)
Research using Ainsworth's 'strange situation' revealed four patterns of attachment: secure, insecure/ambivalent, insecure/avoidant, and disorganized/disoriented. Each is associated with different caregiver behaviors and different personality and behavioral outcomes
91
Positive Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the application of a stimulus following a response with the goal of increasing the occurrence or strength of the response
92
Private (Voluntary) Agency
A social agency that is privately owned and is operated by people who are not employed by a government. A board of directors has ultimate responsibility for a private agency's programmatic and financial operations
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Public Agency
An agency established by legislation adopted by elected officials at the federal, state, county, or city level; funded by tax dollars; run by a unit of government; and generally regulated by laws that directly affect policy
94
Risks
Hazards within a person or in the environment that increase the likelihood of a problem occurring. Examples include genetic predisposition for a mental disorder, insecure attachment pattern, and living in poverty
95
Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer
Reinforcers that are not inherently reinforcing but that acquire their reinforcing value through association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., tokens are reinforcing only because they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers)
96
Social Exchange Theory
Proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs - people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships, and when risks outweigh rewards, people end or abandon a relationship
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Stimulus Generalization
In operant and classical conditioning, stimulus generalization refers to responding with a particular response to similar stimuli. In classical conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the CS with the CR; in operant conditioning, the term is used to describe responding to stimuli similar to the discriminative stimuli with the target behavior
98
Sympathetic Division
The division of the autonomic nervous system involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. Activation produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes
99
Vulnerable State (Crisis)
A person's subjective response to stressful events. Is marked by an increase in anxiety, which the person attempts to relieve by using his/her customary coping strategies. If these are unsuccessful, the person's tension continues to rise and eventually he/she is unable to function effectively
100
Adaptation (Piaget)
According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs when a state of disequilibrium brought on by a discrepancy between the person's current understanding of the world and reality is resolved through adaptation, which entails the processes of assimilation and accommodation. 'Assimilation' refers to the incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas, while 'accommodation' is the modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge
101
Basic Temperament
Tendencies to act in certain predictable ways. Some investigators argue that basic temperament (e.g., activity level, sociability, emotionality) is one of the characteristics that has a string genetic component
102
Catchment Area
The geographic area served by a social agency
103
Community Of Identification And Interest
A non place community in which people are united by common interests, values, and commitments and brought together based on their shared ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, social class, ideology, lifestyle, profession, or workplace
104
Conventional Morality (Kohlberg)
According to Kohlberg, the stage of moral development in which moral judgments are based on adherence to authority. Includes the 'good boy/good girl' and 'law and order' stages. Is characteristic of most adolescents and adults
105
Disciplinary Strategies
Power-assertive discipline (punishment) includes physical punishment, threat of punishment, and physical efforts to control a child's behavior. It tends to increase children's aggressive tendencies. 'Love withdrawal' involves withdrawing love when a child's behavior is considered inappropriate. Children of parents who apply this strategy tend to be excessively anxious and to have difficulty expressing their emotions. 'Induction' involves using explanation and rationality to influence a child's behaviors and provides him/her with opportunities to learn how to exercise self-control and develop internal moral standards. Compared to children who are punished, these children tend to be more thoughtful and generous toward others
106
Emotional Maltreatment (Children)
(A.K.A. emotional abuse or neglect, psychological maltreatment) The failure to provide for the appropriate emotional development of a child resulting in psychological damage to the child. May consist of acts of commission or acts of omission. May include verbal or emotional assault; isolation or close confinement; attempted physical assault; exploiting or corrupting the child; withholding necessities from the child as a form of punishment; and withholding emotional responsiveness from the child. Generally the most difficult form of child abuse to identify
107
Formal Operational Stage
Final stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development; begins around age 11 or 12. People at this stage are aware of their own thought processes and can think more systematically about abstract and hypothetical concepts and ideas
108
Group Cohesion
The feeling of solidarity among group members. Cohesiveness is high in smaller groups; when initiation or entry into the group is difficult; when members are relatively homogeneous; and when there is an external threat
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Higher-Order Conditioning
In classical conditioning, a situation in which a previously established conditioned stimulus (CS) is used as an unconditioned stimulus (US) to establish a conditioned response with a new conditioned response with a new conditioned (neutral) stimulus
110
Hypothyroidism
A condition caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and characterized by a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression
111
Integrated Communities
A "well-integrated" community is associated with a low rate of mental disorders. Indicators of high integration include strong community associations and groups, able and adequate leadership, diverse recreational and leisure opportunities, cohesive informal social networks, high income level ad stable incomes, acknowledgment and resolution of differences between cultures, and an emphasis on religious and spiritual values
112
Learned Helplessness
Seligman's learned helplessness model proposes that depression is due to exposure to uncontrollable negative events and internal, stable, and global attributions for those events. A reformulation of the theory by Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy emphasizes the role of hopelessness
113
Negative Punishment
In operant conditioning, the withdrawal of a stimulus contingent on the performance of a behavior in order to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again
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Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist when they are no longer detectable by the senses (e.g., when they are out of sight). Object permanence emerges at the end of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of development
115
Parenting Style
Baumrind distinguishes between four styles that reflect various combinations of responsivity and demandingness; authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and rejecting-neglecting. High parental responsivity mixed with moderate control (an "authoritative style") is associated with the best outcomes including greater self-confidence and self-reliance, achievement-orientation, and social responsibility
116
Physical Neglect (Children)
A parent's or other caregiver's persistent lack of attention to the child's basic physical needs (e.g., food, shelter, clothing, supervision, health care). Types of neglect include abandonment/lack of supervision; nutritional neglect; hygiene neglect; medical neglect; shelter neglect; educational neglect; and some cases of failure to thrive (signs of chronic undernutrition). Any acts of commission or omission that put a child in danger constitute child endangerment, and physical neglect is the most common type of child endangerment
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Prematurity
Infants born before 37 weeks are considered premature. Risk factors for prematurity include low SES, teen motherhood, malnutrition, and drug use. In the absence of significant abnormalities and with appropriate medical attention and a supportive environment, most premature infants catch up to their nonpremature peers in terms of cognitive, language, and social skills by 2 or 3 years of age
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Psychological Reactance
The tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the opposite of what is desired or expected
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Relational Crisis
A theory proposing that, in early adolescence, girls experience a relational crisis due to pressures to conform to cultural stereotypes of femininity. As a result, they become disconnected from themselves (e.g., experience a "loss of voice")
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Schema
A knowledge structure or framework about a particular topic or process that influences how information and events are interpreted and responded to
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Sexual Abuse (Children)
The initiation of an interaction with a child by an adult or older child for the purpose of sexually gratifying or stimulating the adult or older child or another person (e.g., genital fondling, molestation, rape, incest, sexual exploitation, exhibitionism, pedophilia). The majority of victims are assaulted by someone they know and trust (e.g., a parent, parent surrogate, other relative, friend). Only a small minority of sexual abusers use physical violence; most use bribes, threats, and other forms of coercion and/or the existing relationship with the child to gain the child's cooperation
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Stakeholders
People in a community with a particular interest in what happens with a social agency or program; they may be for or against the service or program. For a typical social service, there are usually three kinds of stakeholders: (a) patrons (those who provide support and/or legitimacy for the service or program), (b) agents and the social service agency (those who carry out the patrons' wishes and provide the services), and (c) clients (those who receive the services)
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Support System
An interrelated group of people, resources, and organization that provide an individual with emotional, informational, material, and affectional support and can be called on in times of need. The members of a person's support system may include his family members, friends and other peers, coworkers, membership organizations, and institutions
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Vertical Community
Consists of external linkages that connect community units (people, groups, organizations) to units outside the community and provide a way for local communities to reach out to other systems (groups, organizations, other communities). Decisions made by organizations outside the boundaries of a local community may not always be in the best interests of the community.
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Anaclitic Depression
Withdrawal, depression, and developmental delays resulting from the loss of an attachment figure during infancy, especially when the loss occurs during the second half of the first year of life
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Beck's Cognitive Therapy
A form of cognitive-behavioral therapy that views depression and other psychopathology as the product of certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitive schemas, automatic thoughts, and cognitive distortions. Is referred to as "collaborative empiricism" because of its emphasis on the collaborative relationship between therapist and client. The therapist uses Socratic dialogue (questioning) in order to help the client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences
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Catecholamine Hypothesis
Theory that attributes depression to deficient norepinephrine and mania to excessive norepinephrine
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Concrete Operational Stage
Third stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development (age 7 to 11 years). During this stage, children acquire logical operations and use logic to reason about concrete events or situations. Children at this stage can conserve
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Critical Period vs Sensitive Period
A "critical period" is a time during which an organism is especially susceptible to positive and negative environmental influences. A "sensitive period" is more flexible than a critical period and is not limited to a specific chronological age. Some aspects of human development may depend on critical periods, but, for many human characteristics and behaviors, sensitive periods are probably more applicable
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Discrimination vs. Prejudice
Discrimination refers to behaviors such as unequal treatment, while prejudice refers to attitudes, which may or may not include behavioral manifestations
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Equilibration
According to Piaget, the tendency toward biological and psychological balance. Equilibration underlies cognitive development.
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FR (Fixed Ratio) Schedule
In operant conditioning, an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the subject is reinforced following a predetermined number of responses (e.g., after each 10th response). The cumulative record exhibits "post-reinforcement pauses," especially as the number of responses required for reinforcement increases
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Group Polarization and Risky Shift Phenomenon
The tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions (either more conservative or more risky) than individual members would have made alone. The tendency to make decisions in the risky direction only is referred to as the "risky shift phenomenon"
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Horizontal Community
Consists of linkages between and among organizations and neighborhoods that are located within the same geographic region and, usually, serve the community
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Identification (Social Influence)
Occurs when a person changes his behavior because he wants to be liked by or identified with another person. The behavior change reflects a private change in opinion or attitude, but the change is maintained only as long as the person continues to like or admire the influencing agent. Referent power is likely to produce identification
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Interference Theory (Retroactive and Proactive)
Theory proposing that the inability to learn or recall information is due to the disrupting effects of previously- or subsequently-learned information. Proactive interference is the inability to learn or recall new information as the result of the effects of previously-learned information; retroactive interference occurs when the inability to remember previously-learned information is due to the acquisition of new information
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Locus of Control
A construct developed by Rotter to describe the extent to which an individual believes that life events are under his own control ("internal locus or control") or under the control of external forces ("external locus of control"). The research suggests that "high internals" attribute their success to intrinsic factors and are more achievement-oriented, self-confident, and willing to work hard to achieve personal goals; are less anxious, suspicious, and dogmatic; and tend to be better adjusted than "high externals"
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Negative Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the withdrawal of a stimulus following a behavior in order to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again
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Observational Learning (Guided Participation)
Bandura's observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors (i.e., the acquisition of behavior is due largely to social influences) and that learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation. The research suggests that guided participation (participant modeling) is the most effective type of observational learning, especially for treating phobic reactions
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Parkinson's Disease
Movement disorder involving bradykinesia (slowness of movement), rigidity, and resting tremor. About 20-60 percent of patients eventually develop neurocognitive disorder due to Parkinson's disease
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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Proposes that knowledge is actively constructed by the individual from elements provided by both maturation and experience. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves four universal and invariant stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
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Preoperational Stage
Second stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development (age 2 through 7 years). Children at this age can think symbolically but haven't mastered logical operations (e.g., mental addition, classification, conservation)
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Psychosexual Development (Freud)
Freud's theory of personality development, which proposes that development involves five invariant stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital), in which the libido shifts from one area of the body to another
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Resilience
A person's ability to function adaptively despite exposure to risks
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School Phobia/School Refusal
Intense anxiety about going to school or being in school, usually accompanied by a stomachache, headache, nausea, and other physical symptoms
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Situational Crises
A crisis in which the origin is a sudden, random, shocking, and often catastrophic event that cannot be anticipated or controlled. Factors that determine whether a person will experience such an event as a crisis include his perception or interpretation of the event and available coping mechanisms and social supports
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Stimulus Control
In operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior does or does not occur due to the presence (or absence) of discriminative stimuli. Positive discriminative stimuli signal that a behavior will be reinforced; negative discriminative stimuli (S-delta stimuli) signal that a behavior will not be reinforced
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Symbolic (Modern) Racism
A theory about current, less blatant forms of racism that reflect a combination of anti-African-American attitudes, strong support for traditional American values (e.g., the work ethic), and a belief that African-American violate those values
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VI (Variable Interval) Schedule
In operant conditioning, an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying amount of time (with the average time interval being predetermined). Associated with a smooth rate of responding
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Assimilation (Piaget)
The incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas
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Board Of Directors
A group of people authorized to establish an agency's objectives and policies and oversee the activities of agency personnel who have day-to-day responsibility for implementing those policies. In a private or voluntary social agency, the board of directors has ultimate responsibility for the agency's programmatic and financial operations. In public agencies, a board has less power and takes on more of an advisory or administrative role
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Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus (US) and salivation was the unconditioned response (UR). A tone was the conditioned stimulus (CS). As the result of pairing the tone with the meat powder, the tone eventually elicited salivation-the conditioned response (CR)
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Conservation (Piaget)
The ability to recognize that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in a superficial way (e.g., when a liquid is poured from a short, fat glass into a tall, thin one, the ability to recognize that the amount of liquid has not changed). The ability to conserve develops gradually during the concrete operational stage and is due to the emergence of decentration and reversibility
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Diabetes Mellitus
A disorder involving a build up of glucose in the blood as the result of hypoinsulinism. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder whose symptoms include increased thirst and urination, constant hunger, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme fatigue, apathy, confusion, and mental dullness. With type 2 diabetes, symptoms include fatigue, nausea, frequent urination, increased thirst, weight loss, blurred vision, frequent infections, slow healing of wounds, and cognitive symptoms like those found in type 1. Type 2 diabetes is associated with obesity, family history of diabetes, and low levels of physical activity. Due to increased rates of obesity in young people, type 2 diabetes is becoming more common in children, adolescents, and young adults than it used to be
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Ecosystem
Concept pertaining to the physical and biological environment and the interaction of all components. Ecosystems theory is used to describe and analyze people and other living systems and their transactions
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Family Life Cycle Theory
Proposes that families pass through expected stages that are demarcated by entrances and exits of family members and the shifts in role function that these changes in membership require. These stages include between families (unattached young adult), joining families through marriage (newly married couple), the family with young children, the family with adolescents, launching children and moving on, and the family in later life. Factors such as traumatic events and a rigid, dysfunctional family structure can make it difficult for a family to accomplish its developmental change will be experienced as a crisis
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Gender Role Development
According to Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory, gender-role development involves a sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development: By age 2 or 3, children acquire a gender identity (ie., they recognize that they are either male or female). Soon therafter, children realize that gender identity is stable over time (gender stability). By age 6 or 7, children understand that gender is constant over situations and know that people cannot change gender by superficially altering their external appearance or behavior (gender constancy)
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Hazardous Event (Crisis)
An initial shock that disrupts a person's equilibrium and initiates a series of reactions that may culminate in a crisis. The hazardous event may be anticipated (e.g., marriage, retirement) or unanticipated (e.g., the unexpected death of a family member)
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Huntington's Disease
Inherited disorder characterized by cognitive decline, chorea (involuntary tremors, twitching), and athetosis (slow writhing movements)
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Information Processing Theory
Views cognitive development as a function of both continued development of the brain and nervous system and learning experiences and practice that allow a child to progressively improve his mental abilities and strategies. Focuses on specific processes - how children acquire information (perception), remember information and retrieve it (memory), and use information to solve problems. Infant measures of information processing may be effective for identifying children at risk for future learning problems
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Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory, moral development coincides with changes in logical reasoning and social perspective-taking and involves three levels that each include two stages: preconventional (punishment and obedience; instrumental hedonism); conventional (good boy/good girl; law and order); and postconventional (morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically-accepted laws; morality of individual principles of conscious)
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Migraine Headache
A recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine)
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Newborn Reflexes
Reflexes are unlearned responses to particular stimuli in the environment. Early reflexes include the Babinski reflex (toes fan out and upward when soles of the feet are tickled) and the Moro reflex (flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support)
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Outreach
Public relations approach in which efforts are made to bring an agency's services and information about its services to people in their homes or other natural environments. Avenues used to achieve outreach include case finding, public speaking, interagency collaboration, and written material
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The nervous system elements lying outside of the spinal cord and brain. The PNS consists of the spinal and cranial nerves and is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
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Postconventional Morality
For Kohlberg, the final level of moral development. At this level, moral judgments are independent or personal consequences and social convention and are based on social contracts, democratically determined laws, and universal principles. Many adults do not reach this stage of moral development.
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Proprietary (For-Profit) Agency
A social agency that provides designated social services that often are similar to those provided by nonprofit social agencies, but one of its major purposes is to make a financial profit for its owners
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Purchase of Service (POS) Contract
A financial arrangement between two or more social agencies or between an agency and a government organization. When the agreement is between a private agency and a public (governmental) agency, the private agency is paid to provide particular services (i.e., the private agency is funded, in part, by tax dollars); the government retains control over financing and decision-making functions but the delivery of services is moved to the private sector
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Role
A social role is defined in terms of fulfilling an established and regulated position in society (e.g., child, parent, sibling, spouse, employee, organization member, neighbor, immigrant, patient, parolee)
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Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Positive beliefs about one's self-efficacy (personal mastery) include feeling competent, effective, and in control of one's life. A person's self-efficacy beliefs determine how much effort he/she is willing to exert and how long he/she will continue to act when faced with obstacles
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Social Networks
Networks that include individuals or groups linked by a common bond, shared social status, similar or shared functions, or geographic or cultural connection. They develop and discontinue on an ad hoc basis, depending on support systems, natural social networks, self-help groups, and groups of formal organizations
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Stranger Anxiety
A normal fear response to strangers exhibited by young children. Begins at about 8 to 10 months of age and declines during the second year
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Stranger Anxiety
A normal fear response to strangers exhibited by young children. Begins at about 8 to 10 months of age and declines during the second year
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Classical Extinction
The gradual elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Often, an extinguished response shows spontaneous recovery (i.e., it recurs following extinction)
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Contact Comfort
Research by Harlow with rhesus monkeys indicated that a baby's attachment to his/her mother is due, in part, to contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent
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Diathesis-Stress Model
A model of certain mental disorders that attributes them to a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental stress factors
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Effects of Divorce on Children
The effects of divorce are moderated by several factors including the child's age and gender and the custody arrangements. Preschool children exhibit the most problems immediately after the divorce, but long-term consequences may be worse for children who were in elementary school at the time of the divorce. Boys exhibit more problems than girls initially, but there may be a 'sleeper effect' for girls who may develop symptoms in adolescence. Overall, children do best when they reside with the same-sex parent. Negative consequences are reduced when the conflict between parents is minimized
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Caused by exposure to alcohol during prenatal development and may produce a variety of physical, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms depending on the amount consumed by the pregnant woman. Symptoms of FAS are largely irreversible and include facial deformities, retarded physical growth, heart defects, intellectual disability, hyperactivity, and irritability. Risk for FAS is highest, and symptoms are most severe, when the mother drinks heavily every day or, in the early stages of pregnancy, engages in binge drinking
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General Adaptation Syndrome
According to Selye, the human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (e.g., cortisol) and involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. The model predicts that prolonged stress can result in illness or death
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Helping Social Network
Networks that allow individuals in a community to give and receive reciprocal help for a specific problems and that exist whether a person uses them or not. They differ from close-knit networks because their concerns are specialized (i.e., they are problem-anchored), their membership is heterogeneous, and their members may lack other common values
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Hypertension
Primary (essential) hypertension' is diagnosed when high blood pressure is not due to a known physiological cause, while ' secondary hypertension' is diagnosed when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease. Primary hypertension accounts for about 85 to 90 percent of all cases of high blood pressure; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease, and it is a major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke. High risk is associated with gender (males), obesity, cigarette smoking, excessive use of salt, and genetics (e.g., African-American heritage)
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Insight Learning (Kohler)
(A.K.A. the 'aha' experience) Refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship between elements in a problem-solving situation
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Kubler-Ross
Kubler-Ross developed a five-stage model of adjustment to the idea of one's own death: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
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Natural Helping Network
Informal linkages and relationships between people who voluntarily provide services to people in need and those to whom they provide services. For example, this type of network often includes the needy person's friends and family, neighbors, fellow employees and church ( or other religious body) members, altruistic community members, etc.
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Nonprofit Private Agency
A social agency operated to achieve a service provision goal rather than to make a financial profit for its owners
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Overcorrection
An operant technique used to eliminate an undesirable behavior. It involves having the individual correct the consequences of his/her behavior (restitution) and/or practice corrective behaviors (positive practice). Overcorrection may require constant supervision and/or physical guidance
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Personal Social Services
Social services that address individualized needs involving interpersonal relationships and the ability to function within one's immediate environment
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Postpartum Depression
Depression that may affect women after childbirth. Early-onset PPD ("baby blues") begins right after delivery, lasts about 10 to 12 days without medical intervention, and is relatively mild. Later-onset PPD is more serious and is typically recognized several weeks after delivery. Indicators include severe mood swings; a lack of joy in life; intense irritability and anger, withdrawal from family and friends; feelings of shame, guilt, or inadequacy; loss of appetite; insomnia; overwhelming fatigue; loss of interest in sex; thoughts of harming oneself or one's baby; and difficulty bonding with one's baby/
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Proprietary Practice
The delivery of social services for profit, typically by self-employed professionals in nonclinical settings. The term 'private practice' has a similar meaning but usually refers to clinical practice. Social workers in private practice assume responsibility of the services they provide in exchange for direct payment or third-party reimbursement
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Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
Distinguishes between five stages that people experience as they attempt to understand themselves in terms of their own culture, the dominant culture, and the oppressive relationship between the two cultures. The five stages are: conformity, dissonance, resistance and immersion, introspection, and integrative awareness
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Role Theory
Set of concepts that define how the behaviors of individuals are influenced by the different social positions they hold and the expectations that accompany those positions
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Sensorimotor Stage
First stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development (the first two years of life). During this stage, knowledge is acquired through the senses and motor behaviors. The end of this stage is marked by the emergence of symbolic thought and abject permanence
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Social Policy
Laws and regulations established by a government that determine which social programs exist, what categories of clients are served, and who qualifies for a program. Social policy also sets standards regarding the type of services to be provided, the qualifications of service providers, etc., and rules for how money can be spent to help people and how these people will be treated
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
The unexpected death of an infant for which no physical cause can be found. Although the cause of SIDS is unknown, SIDS occurs more often in low-birth-weight infants, premature infants, infants with low Apgar scores, infants who sleep on their stomachs, infants with a sibling who previously died of SIDS, and male infants. Maternal risk factors include young age, low SES, smoking, drug abuse during pregnancy, closely spaced pregnancies, and inadequate prenatal care
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Tracking (School of Social Work)
The practice of placing students into homogeneous groups or classes on the basis of current achievement levels. Research suggests that tracking is associated with negative effects, especially for lower-ability children who do better in heterogeneous groups
