Inductive and deductive reasoning Flashcards
Wason Selection task
- Four cards on a table ~ RG27
- Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other
- Decide if this rule is correct, If R on one side. Then 2 is on the other
- which cards do you turn over
Wason selection task answer
change side of 7 and R
what is inductive reasoning?
Reasoning where conclusions are drawn from specific observations or facts to arrive at a broader generalisation. Specific to general. A degree of probability is involved, so not necessarily true.
Falsification principle
- what would need to be found in order to go against the theory
- gain evidence to falsify the hypothesis
confirmation in hypothesis testing
gain evidence to confirm the hypothesis is correct
hypothesis testing uses what reasoning
scientists use inductive reasoning to generate hypothesis based on limited data
how many people get Wasons 2-4-6 task correct?
21% get it correct on the first attempt but 28% never guess correctly anyways
2-4-6 task
Given three numbers: 2-4-6
- Guess rule (generate hypothesis) that generated these numbers
- Give three further numbers to test your hypothesis
- You will be told whether the numbers/rule you have hypothesised is correct or not
actual rule - three numbers in ascending magnitude
confirmation bias
basing our researching on our own beliefs and biases. What we already know.
limitations of wasons task?
- Not the real world —> artificial, immediate feedback does not occur in the real world. Feedback in the real world is often not fully informative.
- Rule is very general - conformation testing is not appropriate
- Confirmation bias is not always present
Unusualness heuristic
the tendency to focus on and prioritize information that is unusual or unexpected when making decisions or drawing conclusions. Gravitating to unusual findings.
how do researchers deal with weird results
- they often resist changing their theories - only 61% update their theories.
- 88% blame the method
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning where there are definite conclusions if the assumptions are true. Like the ontological argument for Gods existence.
Conditional reasoning
Conditional reasoning is when you think about “if-then” situations.
It’s about making logical conclusions based on a condition:
If something happens, then something else will happen.
modus ponens
If P, then Q.
P happens → therefore, Q happens.
affirming the antecedent
modus tollens
If P, then Q.
Q does NOT happen → therefore, P did NOT happen.
denying the consequent
modus ponens example
if it rains, the ground gets wet.
it rains,
therefore the ground is wet.
modus tollens example
f it rains, the ground gets wet.
The ground is not wet.
Therefore, it did not rain.
how to memorise modus tollens and ponens
“Ponens = Positive = Affirm P”
“Tollens = Tells you something’s wrong = Deny P”
in logic is it always modus ponens or tollens?
If you’re only given a result (like “I passed the test”) and no direct confirmation about the first part (like “I studied hard”), you can’t automatically apply modus ponens or modus tollens.
can logic construct false conclusion ?
yes it might not always be tollens or ponens
when Ps were told, if the break is depressed the car slows down. - when were they less likely to believe this statement?
when they were given counter examples and disablers - Alternatives: running out of petrol, having a flat tyre, taking foot of accelerator. Disablers: A broken brake, accelerating at the same time, skid due to road conditions
what is affirming the consequent ?
Affirming the consequent happens when you incorrectly assume the “if” part must be true just because the “then” part is true.
in an experiment do Ps think of counter examples?
even if in an experiment they do not naturallly think of couunter examples and use deductive reasoning
