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Biology > Infection and Response > Flashcards

Infection and Response Flashcards

1
Q

what are the features of viruses and how do they infect

A

very small
move into cells and use the biochemistry of it to make copies of itself
leads to cells bursting and releasing all of the copies into the bloodstream
damage and destruction of the cells make the individual feel ill

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2
Q

what are the features of bacteria

A

small
multiply very quickly through binary fission
produce toxins that damage cells

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3
Q

what are the features of protists

A

some are parasitic, meaning they use humans and animals as their hosts (live on and inside, causing damage)

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4
Q

what are the features of fungi

A

can be either single called or have a body made of hyphae
can produce spores which can be spread to other organisms

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5
Q

how are communicable diseases spread

A

direct contact
water
air (droplets)

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6
Q

how can the spread of pathogens be limited

A

improving hygiene
reducing contact with infected individuals
removing vectors
vaccinations

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7
Q

why are viruses dangerous

A

they can enter all types of cells, and scientists are yet to develop a medicine to cure them

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8
Q

what are the symptoms of measles

A

fever and red skin rash, can lead to other problems such as pneumonia, encephalitis and blindness

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9
Q

how are measles spread

A

droplet infection

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10
Q

how are measles prevented

A

vaccinations for young children to reduce transmission

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11
Q

what are the symptoms of HIV

A

flu like symtoms, then the virus attacks the immune system and leads to aids

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12
Q

how is hiv spread

A

sexual contact or exchange of bodily fluids

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13
Q

how is hiv prevented

A

spread = condoms, not sharing needles, screening blood
development of aids= antiretroviral drugs

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14
Q

what is tobacco mosaic virus

A

a plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes

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15
Q

what are the symptoms of tobacco mosaic virus

A

discolouration of leaves
affected part of leaf cannot photosynthesise resulting in reduction of the yield

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16
Q

how is tobacco mosaic virus spread

A

contact between diseased and healthy plants
insects as vectors

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17
Q

how is tobacco mosaic virus prevented

A

good field hygiene and pest control
growing TMW resistant strains

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18
Q

what is salmonella

A

bacteria that live in the gut of different animals, which are ingested when we eat meat

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19
Q

what are the symptoms of salmonella

A

fever, stomach cramps, vomiting,
diarrhoea

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20
Q

how is salmonella spread

A

bacteria found in raw meat and eggs, unhygienic conditions

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21
Q

how is salmonella prevented

A

poultry are vaccinated against salmonella
keep raw meat away from cooked food
avoid washing it
wash hands and surfaces when handling it
cook food thoroughly

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22
Q

what are the symptoms of gonorrhoea

A

thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis
pain when urinating

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23
Q

how is gonorrhoea spread

A

sexually transmitted disease spread through unprotected sexual contact

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24
Q

how is gonorrhoea prevented

A

using contraception
antibiotics

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25
Q

what are the symptoms of rose black spot

A

purple or black spots on leaves of rose plants
reduces area of leaf available for photosynthesis
leaves turn yellow and drop early

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26
Q

how is rose black spot spread

A

spores of the fungus are spread in water (rain) or by wind

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27
Q

how is rose black spot prevented

A

using fungicides or stripping the plant of affected leaves

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28
Q

what is malaria

A

protist pathogens that enter red blood cells and damage them

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29
Q

what are the symptoms of malaria

A

fevers , shaking

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30
Q

how is malaria spread

A

vector is female anopheles mosquito where the protists reproduce sexually
when mosquito punches the skin to feed on blood the protists enter the human bloodstream via their saliva

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31
Q

how is malaria prevented

A

insecticide coated insect nets while sleeping
removing stagnant water to prevent vectors from breeding
taking antimalarial drugs to kill parasites that enter the blood

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32
Q

what is the non specific defence system

A

system that works to prevent pathogens from entering the body

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33
Q

what is the role of the skin in the defence system

A

acts as a physical barrier
produced antimicrobial secretions to kill pathogens
good microorganisms known as skin flora compete with the bad microorganisms for space and nutrients

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34
Q

what is the role of the nose in the defence system

A

hairs and mucus which prevents particles from entering your lungs

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35
Q

what is the role of the trachea and bronchi in the defence system

A

secrete mucus in order to trap pathogens
cilia beat to waft mucus upwards so it can be swallowed

36
Q

what is the role of the stomach in the defence system

A

produces hydrochloride acid that kills any pathogens in your mucus, food or drink

37
Q

what does the specific immune system do

A

acts to destroy any pathogens which pass through the non specific immune system to the body

38
Q

what is a large part of the specific immune system

A

white blood cells

39
Q

what three things can white blood cells do

A

phagocytosis
producing antibodies
producing antitoxins

40
Q

how does phagocytosis protect you

A

destroys pathogens meaning they cannot make you feel ill

41
Q

how does producing antibodies protect you

A

each pathogen has an antigen on their surface
once antibodies begin to bind to the pathogens, they clump together making it easier for WBCs to find them
if you become infected again the specific antibodies will be produced at a faster rate
the individual is said to be immune and will not feel symptoms of the illness

42
Q

how does producing antitoxins protect you

A

neutralise the toxins released by the pathogen by binding to them

43
Q

how do vaccinations work

A

contain a dead or weakened form of a pathogen
stimulates the white blood cells to produce antibodies complementary to the antigens on the pathogen

44
Q

what are the advantages of vaccination

A

eradicated many diseases so far
epidemics can be prevented through herd immunity

45
Q

what are the disadvantages of vaccination

A

not always effective in providing immunity
bad reactions can occur in response to vaccines

46
Q

what are antibiotics

A

medicines that kill bacterial pathogens inside the body without damaging body cells
they cannot kill viruses as they use body cells to reproduce meaning any drugs that target them would affect body tissue too

47
Q

what do painkillers do

A

only treat the symptoms of the disease rather than the cause

48
Q

what is a concern of antibiotics

A

bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics
mutations can occur during reproduction resulting in certain bacteria no longer being killed by antibiotics
when these bacteria are exposed to antibiotics only the non resistance ones die
the resistant bacteria survive and reproduce meaning the population of resistant bacteria increases

49
Q

how do we stop development if resistant strains of bacteria

A

stop overusing antibiotics
finishing courses of antibiotics to kill all of the bacteria

50
Q

why do antibiotics not work when there is a mutation?

A

only the non resistant bacteria die
the resistant bacteria survive and reproduce to its population increases

51
Q

what do drugs need to be tested for?

A

toxicity, efficacy and dose

52
Q

how do drugs get tested?

A

preclinical testing and clinical trials

53
Q

how can plants be used in drugs

A

the chemicals that plants use to kill pests and pathogens can be used to treat symptoms or human diseases

54
Q

what is aspirin used as and where does it come from?

A

painkiller and from willow

55
Q

how is digitalis used and where is it from

A

used to treat heart problems and originates from foxgloves

56
Q

how was penicillin discovered

A

alexander fleming was growing bacteria on plates
he found penicillin mould with clear rings around indicating there was no longer bacteria there
he found that the mould was producing penicillin which killed bacteria

57
Q

what does preclinical testing do

A

using cells , tissues and live animals

58
Q

what does clinical testing do

A

using volunteers and patients

59
Q

what is the process of drug testing

A

first tested on healthy volunteers with a low dose so there aren’t harmful side effects
drugs are tested on patients to find the most effective dose
patients are split into placebo or drug receivers to view the effect
results are peer reviewed to check for repeatability

60
Q

what is a single blind trial

A

only the doctor knows whether the patient is receiving the drug

61
Q

what is a double blind trial

A

neither the patient or doctor knows who is receiving the drug so there are no biases

62
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies?

A

identical antibodies that have been produced from the same immune cell.

63
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies produced

A
  • scientists obtain mice lymphocytes
  • they are combined with tumour cells to form a hybridoma
  • the hybridoma produces clones of itself
  • the antibodies are collected and purified
64
Q

where are monoclonal antibodies used?

A

pregnancy tests
laboratories to measure hormone/chemical levels
research
treatment for disease

65
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests

A

hormone called HCG is in urine of pregnant women
- one section of the stick has mobile antibodies complementary to hcg. attatched to blue beads
- second section has stationary antibodies complementary to hcg hormone which are stuck down to stick
- woman urinates on first section and if hcg is present it binds to mobile antibodies to form hcg/ antibody complexes

66
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used in labs

A
  • the monoclonal antibodies are modified so that they will bind to the molecule that you are looking for
  • the antibodies are bound to a fluorescent dye
  • if the antibodies bind to molecules in sample , the dye can be seen
67
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used for cancer treatment

A

-produce monoclonal antibodies that bind to tumour markers to stimulate immune system to attack the cell

  • using m a to bind to receptor sites on the cell surface membrane of cancer cells. growth stimulating molecules can’t bind so cell can’t divide

-m a to transport toxic drugs , chemicals or radioactive substances as they can only bind to cancer cells

68
Q

advantages of using monoclonal antibodies

A
  • they bind to specific cells, meaning healthy cells are not affected

-they can be engineered to treat many different conditions

-we are able to produce mouse human hybrid cells to reduce the chance of triggering an immune response

69
Q

disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • it is difficult to attach monoclonal antibodies to drugs

-they are expensive to develop

  • can trigger an immune response in humans because they are made from mice lymphocytes
70
Q

what kind of issues can plants have

A

viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens

71
Q

what are the common signs of plant diseases

A

stunted growth
spots on leaves
areas of decay
abnormal growth
malformed stems or leaves
discolouration
pests on leaves

72
Q

what does stunted growth in plants indicate

A

nitrate deficiency

73
Q

what does spots on leaves in plants indicate

A

black spot fungus on roses

74
Q

what does abnormal growths indicate for plants

A

crown galls caused by bacterial infection

75
Q

what does malformed stems or leaves indicate in plants

A

aphid infestation

76
Q

what does discolouration indicate in plants

A

magnesium deficiency or tobacco mosaic virus

77
Q

how can you identify the disease a plant has

A

using a gardening manual or website

identifying the pathogen by observing the infected plant in a laboratory

using monoclonal antibodies in testing it to identify the pathogen

78
Q

what are the three plant diseases

A

tobacco mosaic virus (viral disease)
black spot (fungal disease)
aphids

79
Q

how does nitrate deficiency stunt growth

A

nitrates in soil convert sugars made in photosynthesis into proteins

these proteins are needed for growth

80
Q

how does magnesium deficiency cause chlorosis in plants

A

magnesium is needed to make chlorophyll
this pigment is green and its vital in photosynthesis
if less is made parts of leaves appear yellow + green (chlorosis)

81
Q

what are the physical plant defences

A

tough waxy cuticle stops entry into leaves

cellulose cell walls form a physical barrier into the cells

plants have layes of dead cells around stems. the dead cells fall off with the pathogens

82
Q

what is the reason for physical defences in plants

A

to prevent the invasion of microorganisms

83
Q

what is the reason for chemical defences in plants

A

to deter predators or kill bacteria

84
Q

what are examples of chemical plant defences

A

poisons deter herbivores
antibacterial compounds kill bacteria

85
Q

what are mechanical defences in plants

A

thorns and hairs
leaves droop or curl when touches
mimicry to trick animals

Biology (22 decks)

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