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Biology > Organisation > Flashcards

Organisation Flashcards

1
Q

what is a tissue

A

a group of specialised cells with a similar structure and function and can be made of more than one type of cell

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2
Q

what are organs

A

a number of different tissues working together to produce a specific function

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3
Q

what are organ systems

A

organs that work together to perform a certain function

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4
Q

why do we need the digestive system

A

food is large and insoluble and needs to be broken down in order for it to be in a form that can be absorbed by cells

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5
Q

what is the digestive system made up of

A

salivary glands
stomach
pancreas
small intestine
liver
gall bladder
large intestine
rectum
anus

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6
Q

what do salivary glands and the pancreas do?

A

produce digestive juices containing enzymes that break down food

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7
Q

what does the stomach do

A

produces hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria and provide the optimum ph for the protease enzymes to work

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8
Q

what does the small intestine do?

A

where soluble molecules are absorbed into the blood

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9
Q

what does the liver do

A

produces bile which helps with digestion of lipids

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10
Q

what does the gallbladder do

A

stores bile

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11
Q

what does the large intestine do

A

absorbs water from undigested food to produce faeces

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12
Q

how do faeces pass out of the body

A

rectum and anus

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13
Q

what are enzymes

A

biological catalysts (that increase the rate of reaction without being used up)

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14
Q

what can enzymes do

A

present in so many reactions that they can be controlled
can break up large molecules and join small ones
protein molecules and have a special shape

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15
Q

what is the lock and key hypothesis

A

shape of substrate complimentary to active site
binds to form an enzyme substrate complex
once bound a reaction takes place and products are released from the surface of the enzyme

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16
Q

what do enzymes require to work

A

an optimum ph and temperature because they are proteins

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17
Q

what is the optimum temperature for enzymes

A

37 degrees (body temp)

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18
Q

how does rate of reaction in enzymes change with temperature

A

increases up to the optimum
after this temperature rapidly decreases until reaction stops
when temp is too hot the bonds in the structure break
this changes the shape of the active site so the substrate can’t fit
the enzyme is now denatured

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19
Q

what is the optimum ph for enzymes

A

7
some produced in acidic conditions have a low optimum ph

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20
Q

how do enzymes work dependent on ph

A

if ph is too high or low the forces that hold amino acid chains that make up the protein are affected
this changes the shape of the active site so the substrate can’t fit
the enzyme is denatured and cannot work

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21
Q

what do carbohydrases do

A

convert carbohydrates into simple sugars
eg amylase breas down starch into maltose

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22
Q

where are carbohydrases found

A

produced in salivary glands , pancreas and small intestine

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23
Q

what do proteases do

A

convert proteins into amino acids
eg pepsin

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24
Q

where are proteases found

A

produced in stomach, pancreas and small intestine

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25
Q

what do lipases do

A

convert lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

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26
Q

where are lipases found

A

produced in pancreas and small intestine

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27
Q

how do enzymes build new carbohydrates , lipids and proteins and sometimes glucose use in respiration

A

soluble glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol pass into the bloodstream ro be carried to all the cells around the body

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28
Q

which tests can be used to determine whether a solution is a sugar and which colour does it turn

A

benedict’s
turns brick red

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29
Q

which test identifies starch and which colour does it turn

A

iodine
blue/black

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30
Q

which test identifie protein and which colour does it turn

A

biuret
turns purple

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31
Q

which tests cna be used to identify lipids and how can it be identified

A

emulsion test - add ethanol and cloudy layer appears if a lipid is present
sudan III test - red layer forms on top

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32
Q

where is bile produced, stored and released into

A

produced in the liver
stored in the gallbladder
released into the small intestine

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33
Q

what are the two roles of bile

A

alkaline - neutralises hcl from stomach, enzymes in small intestine have a higher optimum ph than those in the stomach
emulsifies fat- larger sa allows lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster

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34
Q

what does the circulatory system do?

A

carries oxygen and nutrients to every cell in the body and removes the waste products

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35
Q

which system does the heart pump blood in

A

a double circulatory system

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36
Q

what are the two circuits of the double circulatory system

A

deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium then right ventricle which pumps it into the lungs to undergo gaseous exchange
oxygenated blood flow into the left atrium then left ventricle which pumps oxygenated blood around the body

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37
Q

what is the role of the muscular walls of the heart

A

provide a strong heartbeat

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38
Q

why is the muscular wall of the left ventricle thicker

A

blood needs to be pumped all around the body rather than to just the lungs

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39
Q

what is the role of the 4 chambers in the heart

A

separate oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood

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40
Q

what is the role of the valves in the heart

A

make sure blood does not flow backwards

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41
Q

what is the role of the coronary arteries in the heart

A

cover the heart to provide its own oxygenated blood supply

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42
Q

what is the process of the heart

A

blood flows into right atrium through vena cava, left atrium through pulmonary vein
left and right atrium contract forcing blood into the ventricles
ventricles contract pushing blood from right v into pulmonary artery and blood from left v to the aorta
as this happens valves close to make sure blood does not flow backwards

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43
Q

what is the natural resting heart rate controlled by

A

cells in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker and provide stimulation through small electrical impulses that pass as a wave across the heart muscle causing it to contract

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44
Q

when is an artificial pacemaker used

A

if someone has an irregular heartbeat, an electrical device that produces a signal causing the heart to beat at a normal speed

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45
Q

what do arteries do

A

carry blood away from the heart
layers of muscle in the walls make them strong
elastic fibres allow them to stretch
this helps the vessels withstand the high pressure of the pumping of the heart

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46
Q

what do veins do

A

carry blood towards the heart
the lumen is wide to allow the low pressure blood to flow through
have valves to ensure the blood flows in the right direction

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47
Q

what do capillaries do

A

allow blood to flow very close to cells to enable substances to move between them
one cell thick walls to create a short diffusion pathway
permeable walls so substances can move across them

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48
Q

how is rate of blood flow calculated

A

volume of blood/number of minutes

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49
Q

where are the lungs found

A

in the thorax protected by rib cage

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50
Q

what do the lungs do?

A

supply oxygen to blood and remove carbon dioxide

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51
Q

what are the parts of the gas exchange system

A

trachea
intercostal muscles
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli
diaphragm

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52
Q

what is the role of the trachea

A

windpipe, air moves through there

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53
Q

what is the role of the intercostal muscles

A

contract and relax to ventilate the lungs

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54
Q

what is the role of the bronchi

A

air from the trachea move into these , lead to each lung

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55
Q

what is the role of bronchioles

A

bronchi split into these and air moves in

56
Q

what is the role of alveoli

A

bronchioles lead to the alveoli
air sacs where gaseous exchange occurs

57
Q

what is the role of the diaphragm

A

separates the lungs from digestive organs
moves down casing inhalation

58
Q

how does ventilation work

A

rib cage moves up and out and diaphragm moves down causing the volume of the chest to increase
increased volume results in low pressure
air is drawn into the chest as air moves from areas of high pressure (environment) to low pressure (lungs)
the opposite happens when enhaling

59
Q

how does gas exchange work

A

upon inhalation, alveoli fill with oxygen
blood in capillaries surrounding alveoli is deoxygenated (comes from pulmonary vein) , has lots of carbon dioxide as it is a product of respiration
oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient into the capillary bloodstream, which has a low concentration of oxygen
carbon dioxide diffuses down its concentration gradient from the blood to the alveoli

60
Q

how are alveoli adapted for gas exchange

A

very small and arranged in clusters creating a large surface area for diffusion to take place
capillaries provide a large blood supply maintaining the concentration gradient
walls of alveoli are thin meaning there is a short diffusion pathway

61
Q

how can you calculate breathing rate

A

number of breaths/ number of minutes

62
Q

what is plasma

A

liquid that carries components in the blood such as
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, glucose, amino acids, carbon dioxide, urea, hormones, proteins, antibodies, antitoxins

63
Q

what are red blood cells

A

carry oxygen molecules from lungs to body cells
bioconcave disc shape provides a large surface area
no nucleus allowing room for oxygen
contain red pigment haemoglobin which binds to oxygen and forms oxyhemoglobin

64
Q

what are white blood cells

A

part of the immune system (bodys defence against pathogens)
have a nucleus
have types that=
produce antibodies
engulf and digest pathogens
produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins

65
Q

what are platelets

A

help the blood clot form at the site of a wound
the clot dries and hardens to form a scab which allows new skin to grow underneath without microorganisms entering
small fragments of cells
no nucleus
without them ,cuts would result in excessive bleeding and bruising

66
Q

when does coronary heart disease occur

A

when the coronary arteries that provide blood to the heart become blocked with a build up of fatty material , resulting in less blood flowing to the heart, reducing its oxygen supply and possibly leading to a heart attack

67
Q

what do stents do for coronary heart disease

A

keep the arteries open to allow blood to flow through

68
Q

what are stents

A

metal tubes inserted in arteries

69
Q

what are the advantages of stents

A

effective in lowering risk of a heart attack
recovery time from surgery is quick

70
Q

what are the disadvantages of stents

A

risk of a heart attack during the procedure or an infection following it
a change that blood clots can form near the stent called thrombosis

71
Q

how do statins help coronary heart disease

A

decrease levels of ldl cholesterol which would lead to coronary heart disease

72
Q

what are the advantages of statins

A

reduce the risk of strokes, coronary heart disease and heart attacks
increase the levels of hdl cholesterol

73
Q

what are the disadvantages of statins

A

need to be taken continuously which may be inconvenient
can produce side effects
may not have an immediate effect as it only slows down the rate it is deposited

74
Q

what is a faulty valve

A

when a heart valve becomes stiff so cannot open or it is damages so it leaks, blood flows in the wrong direction meaning the heart does not work as efficiently as it should

75
Q

what are the solutions to fixing faulty valves

A

replacing with a biological valve (pigs or cattle)
replacing with a mechanical valve (man made)

76
Q

what is an advantage of replacing faulty heart valve with biological valves

A

works very well

77
Q

what is a disadvantage of biological valves

A

only last 12-15 years

78
Q

what is an advantage of man made valves

A

lasts for a long time

79
Q

what is a disadvantage of man made valves

A

constant medication is needed to stop blood from clotting around the valve

80
Q

how can heart failure be solved

A

with a transplant

81
Q

what does a heart transplant need

A

a donor who has recently died
not always available so an artificial one must be used whilst waiting

82
Q

what are the advantages of man made heart transplants

A

less likely to be rejected by the immune system - metal and plastic are not recognised as foregin

83
Q

what are the disadvantages of man made heart transplants

A

surgery temporarily leaves the body exposed to infection
as it is mechanical , parts could wear out and the motor could fail
blood clots could form leading to strokes
drugs are taken to prevent the above which thin the patients blood

84
Q

what can extreme blood loss be solved by

A

giving artificial blood

85
Q

what is artificial blood

A

a salt solution that can keep people alive even if they lose 2/3 of their red blood cells

86
Q

what is the advantage of artificial blood

A

it means the patient has more time to produce new blood cells

87
Q

what is the disadvantage of artificial blood

A

can only be used for short periods of time, then a blood transfusion has to take place

88
Q

what is health

A

a state of physical, mental, social wellbeing

89
Q

what is a communicable disease

A

infectious diseases caused by pathogens and are passed on from one person to another

90
Q

what is a non communicable disease

A

not passed on from person to person

91
Q

what happens if an immune system of an individual is poor

A

they are more likely to become infected with a communicable diseases as the body is less able to fight off pathogens.

92
Q

how can viruses cause cancers

A

infections by viruses in certain parts of the body can trigger the growth of cancer

93
Q

how does diet affect health

A

eating too much or too little and not enough nutrients prevents a balanced diet which can effect mental and physical health

94
Q

how can stress affect health

A

physical and mental stress puts strain on it bodies which can lead to heart disease, cancers and mental illnesses

95
Q

how can life situations effect health

A

where you live, financial status , ethnic group, access to medical care and levels of hygiene can lead to communicable diseases or non communicable diseases

96
Q

what is the casual mechanism for cardiovascular disease

A

diet containing lots of ldl cholesterol results in blocked arteries , increasing blood pressure
smoking damages the walls of arteries
exercise lowers blood pressure, reducing strain on the heart

97
Q

what is the casual mechanism for type 2 diabetes

A

obesity affects the body’s metabolism - fat molecules are released into the blood which can effect the cells uptake of sugar

98
Q

what is the casual mechanism for liver and brain function

A

alcohol causes fatty liver which can lead to liver failure
alcohol can damage nerve cells in the brain

99
Q

what is the casual mechanism for lung disease and lung cancer

A

smoking damages the cells in the lining of the lungs

100
Q

what is the casual mechanism for pregnancy

A

smoking and alcohol can cause damaging effects on the unborn child

101
Q

what is the casual mechanism for cancer

A

carcinogens such as ionising radiation can lead to cancers

102
Q

what is cancer

A

the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrollable growth and division, causing a tumour

103
Q

what is a benign tumour

A

growth of cells contained in one place, usually a membrane
not cancerous
it grows until there is no more room
it does not invade other tissues
if it causes pressure or damage to an organ it can be dangerous

104
Q

what is a malignant tumour

A

tumour that grows and spreads to other tissues
cancerous
the tumour may split up, resulting in cells being carried in the bloodstream or lymphatic system
they can travel to and stay in another organ potentially causing secondary tumour
the cancer cells divide more rapidly and have a longer lifespan in comparison to normal cells

105
Q

what are the lifestyle risks for cancer

A

smoking
obesity
uv light
viral infection

106
Q

what are the genetic risks for cancer

A

you can inherit certain genes that increase likelihood of getting cancer

107
Q

where is epidermal tissue found

A

covering the whole plant

108
Q

what are the features of epidermal tissue

A

covered with a waxy cuticle

109
Q

what is the function of epidermal tissue

A

helps to reduce water loss by evaporation , as the waxy cuticle prevents water from moving out

110
Q

where is the palisade mesophyll tissue found

A

underneath the epidermal tissue

111
Q

what are the features of palisade mesophyll tissue

A

has lots of chloroplasts

112
Q

what is the function of palisade mesophyll tissue

A

having many chloroplasts means photosynthesis can happen rapidly
positioned at top of leaf so receive lots of light

113
Q

where is spongy mesophyll tissue found

A

underneath the palisade mesophyll

114
Q

what are the features of spongy mesophyll tissue

A

lots of air spaces

115
Q

what is the function of palisade mesophyll tissue

A

allows gases to diffuse in and out of cells

116
Q

where is the xylem found

A

roots, stems , leaves

117
Q

what are the features of the xylem

A

made of dead cells joined together creating a continuous tube

strengthened with lignin but this has some holes in it along the tube called bordered pits

118
Q

what is the function of xylem cells

A

allows movement of water, mineral ions from roots to stem and leaves where it evaporated (transpiration system)
lignin makes it strong and waterproof so water will not leave except and bordered pits, allowing minerals to go to specific places in the plant

119
Q

where is phloem found

A

roots, stems , leaves

120
Q

what are the features of phloem

A

elongated cells with hols in cell walls (end walls called sieve plates)
many organelles from cells are removed so cell sap can move through

121
Q

what is the function of phloem

A

food substances can be moved in both directions , from the leaves where they are made or from storage to parts of the plant that need it (translocation

122
Q

where is meristematic tissue found

A

the tips of shoots and roots

123
Q

what are the features of meristematic tissue

A

able to differentiate into different types of plant cells

124
Q

what is the function of meristematic tissue

A

allows the plant to grow

125
Q

what is translocation

A

the movement of food substances made in the leaves up or down the phloem , for use immediately or storage

126
Q

what is transpiration

A

the loss of water from the leaves and stems of the plant
consequence of gaseous exchange as the stomata are open so this can occur

127
Q

why does water evaporate at the open stomata

A

water molecules are attracted to each other, when some molecules leave the plant the rest are pulled up through the xylem
results in more water being taken up from the soil resulting in a continuous transpiration stream through the plant

128
Q

how does increase in temperature affect evaporation/ transpiration

A

molecules move faster resulting in faster evaporation and transpiration
rate of photosynthesis increases so more stomata are open for gaseous exchange , more water evaporates and transpiration increases

129
Q

how does increase in relative humidity effect transpiration and evaporation

A

if it is high the concentration gradient between conc of water vapour inside and outside of leaf is reduced , resulting in a slower rate of diffusion which decreases the rate of transpiration

130
Q

how does increased air movement affect evaporation and transpiration

A

if more air moves towards the leaf due to it being blown away, concentration of water vapour surrounding leaf is lower
steeper conc gradient
diffusion happens faster
increased rate of transpiration

131
Q

how does an increase in light intensity affect evaporation and transpiration

A

increased rate of photosynthesis
more stomata open for gaseous exchange
more water can evaporate
increased rate of transpiration

132
Q

what do you measure to indicate the rate of transpiration in a plant

A

uptake of water

133
Q

how do you measure uptake of water

A

photometer
place plant in tube of water
measure distance travelled by a bubble

134
Q

what do guard cells do

A

close and open stomata

135
Q

what are the features of guard cells

A

kidney shaped
thin outer walls and thick inner walls
when lots of water available, fill and change shape opening stomata
allows gases to be exchanged and more water to leave the plant via evaporation
more stomata found on bottom of lead allowing gases to be exchanged whilst minimising water loss by evaporation as owner surface is shaded and cooler

Biology (22 decks)

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