Intro 1-Biological Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What was Aristotle’s argument?
A
That the heart, rather than the brain, was the centre of the mind
2
Q
What were some of the reasons behind Aristotles argument?
A
All animals have a heart but not all have a brain eg invertebrates have sensations but no brain. Also the heart is sensitive to touch, unlike the brain
3
Q
What was Descartes view?
A
Tried to explain the brain in terms of machines. Also spoke about dualism
4
Q
What is dualism?
A
The philosophical position that behaviour is controlled by two entities; the mind and the body
5
Q
What was Gall’s view?
A
Brain is an organ of the mind which distinct faculties. The size of the brain measures the power, and the shape of the brain is determined by development of various organs
6
Q
What is phrenology?
A
As the skull takes shape from brain, surface of skull can be read as an accurate index of psychological aptitudes and tendencies
7
Q
What tool was used in phrenology?
A
Lavery’s Electric Phrenometer
8
Q
What was Golgi’s contribution to the understanding of the brain?
A
Using his technique of silver staining he discovered the brain was a large network of interconnected tubes, meaning it would be misleading to think about functional localisation
9
Q
Who disagreed with Golgi, and why?
A
Santiago Roman y Cajal later discovered, using a similar technique, that nerve cells are actually discrete entities
10
Q
What did Brodmann discover?
A
That cells are grouped in areas, and these areas have different functions
11
Q
What did Kleist do?
A
Comprehensive functional mapping of cerebral cortex using case notes from WW1 head wound casualties, and discovered that phrenologists’ language areas differ from Broca and Wernicke’s area
12
Q
What study did Bailey and Von Bonin do?
A
Cortico-cortical connexions in chimpanzees found the brain is an interconnected network
13
Q
What are the ways of studying the brain?
A
Cytoarchitecture, neuropsychology, imaging techniques, listening techniques, EEG (and event related potentials), near infra-red spectroscopy, direct brain stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation
14
Q
What is cytoarchitecture?
A
Study of cellular composition of central nervous system’s tissues under the microscope, to discover connectivity and anatomical function
15
Q
How can neuropsychology be used to study the brain?
A
Eg Phineas Gage where the brain lesions changed personality, decision making and sense of time
16
Q
What is a negative point of neuropsychology?
A
Have to wait for the patient to die to discover function and damage to brain areas
17
Q
How can imaging techniques be used to study the brain?
A
MRI studies brain anatomy, fMRI studies brain function (correlation not causation), subtraction method
18
Q
How can listening techniques be used to study the brain?
A
Single cell recordings, as with Hubel and Wiesel’s study
19
Q
What is near infra-red spectroscopy?
A
Fibre optic cables and sensitive detectors used. Reflections as light bounces off cortex. Heightened activity among neurons increases scattering. Light into 3cm in cortex with spatial specificity of 0.5cm with m5 resolution
20
Q
What did D’Arsonval and Thompson do?
A
Contributed to the history of magnetic stimulation of the nervous system. Early attempts to stimulate the brain using a magnetic field
21
Q
What is the neuronal membrane?
A
Surrounds every cell in the body. It is intracellular and extracellular
22
Q
What is the phospholipid bilayer?
A
It contains ion pumps and channels. Ion movement across the membrane causes electrical signals which affects the ion channels which can either be resting (open), voltage gated, ligand gated or mechanically gated
23
Q
What are the ions in the intra/extracellular fluid?
A
Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-), and large negative ions (A-)
24
Q
What forces cause the movement of ions in and out of the cell?
A
Concentration (high to low density) (Diffusion), and electrical (negative to positive) (balance)
25
What happens in the membrane at rest?
Sodium ion channels are closed so sodium is free to move across the membrane. Some potassium ion channels are always open. Neuron has more positive ions outside cell so cell is negatively charged. Na/K pump causes imbalance as always pushes three positive sodium out and two positive potassium in
26
What is the resting membrane potential?
At rest the neuron is negatively charged at -65mv
27
How do action potentials occur?
Equilibrium is upset by stimulation. If large enough the resting potential becomes an action potential which is generated at the axon hillock if net charge is above the threshold of -50mv, and it is then propagated down the axon
28
How is sodium linked to the rise of the action potential?
Changes in electrical activity/action potential due to ion movement. Cell stimulated above threshold so sodium ion channels open. Sodium attracted in the cell due to more Na+ outside. Also because cell is negatively charged. This influx causes the cell to become more positive
29
How is potassium linked to the fall of the action potential?
The cell is positively charged when action potential reaches peak. Electrical force changes and potassium is attracted outside cell (which is negative). Still more potassium in the cell than out, so concentration force also forces potassium out of the cell
30
What is a nerve impulse?
Action potential quickly propagated down the axon to the pre-synaptic terminals. Some axons are covered in myelin, which is produced by glial cells (oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells)
31
What is the difference between myelinated and non-myelinated axons?
Myelinated axons conduct action potentials quicker than those without, by saltatory conduction
32
What is the refractory period?
Action potentials are all or nothing events. One cannot occur until the previous one has finished. The strength of the stimulus is denoted by increasing firing rate. Neurons can fire many action potentials per second
33
How are synapses related to action potentials?
Action potential reaches presynaptic terminal, then neurotransmitter is released into the synapse. This can have an excitatory or inhibitory effect
34
How does excitation and inhibition affect the nervous system?
The nervous system works through excitation and inhibition. The balance however breaks down in conditions such as epilepsy where neurons are too active causing seizures (uncontrollable patterns of electrical activity). The correct balance of excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is needed for the proper working of the nervous system
35
What are the three factors that determine the electrical activity of the cell?
How well ions move across the cell membrane, why they move across, and when they move across
36
What are synapses formed by?
The termination of an axon from one neuron onto the dendrite of another neuron
37
WHat are specialised synapes?
They form between neurons and muscles allowing contraction and movement (neuro-muscular junction)
38
What is ALS?
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis affects the axons from neurons that activate muscles, located in the spinal cord, gradually restricting movement until it results in death
39
How are neurotransmitters made/transported?
Made in cell body, packaged into vesicles then transported along axon to presynaptic terminal
40
How do neurotransmitters work?
Remain dormant until action potential arrives. When it arrives along the synapse it causes calcium ion channels to open (Ca++). Incoming Ca++ binds to synaptic vesicles causing them to release their neurotransmitter into the synapse
41
What are ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors?
Proteins found on dendrites. Receptors composed of two parts; binds neurotransmitters, and an ion channel. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor, channel opens, allows ions in cell
42
What are metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors?
Influence ion channels indirectly. Neurotransmitter binds to binding site, subunit detaches causing ion channel to open, allowing ions to pass through. These receptors influence function slower than ionotropic receptors
43
What is neurotransmitter removal/inactivation?
Neurotransmitters need to be removed after release or prolonged activation can occur, eg blood flow to brain reduced, glutamate not removed from synapse, excitatory response continues, leading to stroke
44
What is synaptic integration?
Spatial integration of EPSPs and temporal integration of EPSPs
45
What are some examples of the fact that different neurons have different neurotransmitters?
Glutamate and major excitatory neurotransmitter for learning and memory. GABA and main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Dopamine and movement control and reward circuits. Serotonin-profound effect on mood and anxiety
46
What is Parkinson's disease?
Loss of dopaminergic neurons in brain stem
47
What drug is often used to treat Parkinson's?
Levo-dopa, which mimics dopamine, temporarily reliving symptoms, however also can cause schizophrenic symptoms as schizophrenia is partly caused by overactivity of dopaminergic pathways
48
What toxins poison ion channels?
Tetrodotoxin (puffer fish and Na+ channels), scorpions and Na+ channels, wasps/bees and K+ channels, a-latrotoxin (black widow spider and nerve-muscular junction), botulism (excitatory neurotransmitters at neuro-muscular junction), tetanus (inhibitory neurotransmitters at spinal cord)
49
What toxins block neurotransmitter receptors?
Poisonous plants, venomous animals. Eg a-Bungarotoxin (banded krait snake) blocks neurotransmitter receptors on nerve-muscle junction
50
How do psychoactive drugs link to neurotransmitter?
Mimic effects of neurotransmitters by binding directly to receptors. LDS and psilocybe mimic srotonin (antagonists). Alcohol affects GABA receptors, increasing inhibitory effect, leading to sedative like effect (also acts as an antagonist blocking glutamate receptors)
51
What drugs affect the uptake of neurotransmitters?
Cocaine prevents reuptake of dopamine, prolonging arousal effect. Prozac blocks reuptake of serotonin, enhancing effect of felling of well-being
52
Why do some people become addicted to drugs?
Association between drug taking and reward circuits in the brain. Dopamine is an important component in reward circuits. Many highly addictive drugs activate this system in the brain
53
How is the nervous system organised?
The nervous system splits into the central nervous system (brain/spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (somatic/autonomic-sympathetic/parasympathetic)
54
What are the surface features of the brain?
Gyri (bumps) and sulci (fissures/grooves)
55
What is cerebrospinal fluid?
The cushion between the brain and the skull
56
How is the cerebral cortex organised?
Two hemispheres with four lobes: occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal
57
What is the cerebral cortex?
Forms layer of nerve cells that cover the outer surface of the brain. The number/variety of neurons varies in different parts of the cerebral cortex. Different regions have different functions
58
What is beneath the surface of the brain?
The basal ganglia and the limbic system
59
What is the basal ganglia?
Important in the control of voluntary movement
60
What is the limbic system?
Important in the navigation in space and memory formation
61
What is the brainstem?
Composed of nerves that run up from the body into the brain. Used for alertness, and regulates processes. Includes the hindbrain and cerebellum, midbrain, and diencephalon and thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary
62
What are cranial nerves?
Part of the somatic nervous system that allow the brain to communicate with muscles and sense organs of the head and neck
63
What are the 12 cranial nerves?
Olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear (eye movement), trigeminal (chew/facial sensation), abducens (eye movement), facial, auditory vestibular, glossopharyngeal (tongue/pharynx), vagus (heart/blood vessels/viscera), spinal accessory, and hypoglossal (tongue muscles)
64
How do the cranial nerves work?
Brain communicates with body via spinal cord and cranial nerves. Sensory information is relayed to the brain via the spinal cord and brain sends motor commands via spinal cord to muscles to produce movement. Nerve fibres leave spinal cord through gaps between vertebrae
65
What are the parts of the sympathetic nervous system?
Pre-ganglionic ACH and post-ganglionic noradrenaline
66
What are the parts of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Pre-ganglionic ACH and post-ganglionic ACH
67
What does anterior mean?
Located near or toward the front
68
What does caudal mean?
Near or toward tail
69
What does dorsal mean?
On or toward the back (or located above if in reference to brain nuclei)
70
What does frontal mean?
Front/viewing orientation from the front
71
What does inferior mean?
Located below
72
What does lateral mean?
Toward the side of the body
73
What does medial/mesial mean?
Toward the middle
74
What does posterior mean?
Located near or toward the tail
75
What does rostral mean?
Toward the beak
76
What does sagittal mean?
Parallel to length (front to back) of the skull
77
What does superior mean?
Located above
78
What does ventral mean?
In reference to brain nuclei it means located below, or it means on/toward the stomach
79
What is sensation and perception?
Sensation is the registration of physical stimuli from the environment by sensory organs, whereas perception is the interpretation of sensations by the brain
80
What are three types of somatosensation?
Hapsis (touch), nocioception (pain and temperature), and proprioception (body awareness)
81
How are physical stimuli converted into electrical signals?
Sensory receptors, specialised dendrites, open ion channels if stimulated by appropriate external stimulus
82
What are examples of physical stimuli being converted into electrical signals?
If a feather rubs a hair on the skin, the dendrite of the touch receptor stretches when the hair moves, opening the sodium channels on the dendrite, causing depolarisation. Also photoreceptors absorb light, changing the shape of light-sensitive pigments, opening the ion channels
83
How do different sensations carry the electrical signal to the brain?
Pain and temperature is carried differently to touch and pressure. Unilateral damage causes differently lateralised effects
84
How can somatic sensation be divided up?
Three components: touch (mechanical stimulation), pain (heat, chemical or mechanical stimulation), or limb proprioception (muscle or joint stimulation)
85
What type of axons carry pain signals?
Pain is carried by un-myelinated axons, whereas other somatosensory neurons are myelinated
86
What is a receptive field?
Each sensory receptor is sensitive to physical stimuli that impinge on an area of the body (the receptive field)
87
What does the size of the receptive field affect?
It is important in determining the sensitivity eg receptor neurons with smaller receptive fields allow greater sensitivity (glabrous skin is much more sensitive to touch)
88
How do sensory receptors indicate the strength of a stimulus?
By the number of action potentials they fire. Stronger stimuli produce more action potentials per unit time than weaker stimuli
89
What are brain maps?
Sensory pathways from periphery to cerebral cortex are organised to preserve spatial relations of adjacent receptors, except chemical senses of taste/smell. Example of brain maps shown in somatosensory cortex (touch/pain) to stimulation of various parts of the body. Adjacent parts of body represented next to each other. Some parts of body have more cortical space than others (more receptors)
90
What is phantom limb?
Affects 60% of amputees. Cells in the somatosensory cortex that once received signals from sensory receptors in amputated limb now receive input from neighbouring regions which may cause that feeling. Visual capture effect however can help (mirror therapy) (Ramachadran)
91
How does olfaction work?
Scent interacts with chemical receptors. Chemicals dissolve in mucosa and interact with cilia. Changes in the membrane potential is mediated by metabotropic ion channels
92
How big is the human receptor area?
2-4 cm² (dogs are 18cm² and cats are 21cm²)
93
How are odours processed?
Odours entering one nostril are processed by the same side of the brain. Unlike other senses, signals bypass the thalamus and go directly to the amygdala and pyriform areas. One projection goes to the limbic system, another projects via the thalamus to the orbitofrontal region
94
What are pheromones?
Not perceived consciously as smells but still influence behaviour. Olfactory receptor cells also detect these
95
How does taste work?
Chemicals detected by different taste receptors (salty/sour/sweet/bitter). Recent discovery of another basic taste 'unami', and also discovered receptors specific to fat
96
What is gourmand syndrome caused by?
Damage to the frontal lobe of the right hemisphere
97
How do taste receptors work?
Taste receptors are grouped into taste buds. Opening of ion channels on microvilli leads to membrane potential changes
98
What cranial nerves are used in taste?
Nerves 7 (facial), 9 (glossopharangeal) and 10 (vagus) from main glustatory nerve to solitary tract, which divides into two pathways (sensation, and emotional/hormonal response)
99
What is flavour?
Taste + olfaction. Chewing unlocks odours from food and mixes them with air. The brain can distinguish between orthonasal and retronasal odours
100
What is frequency?
The rate air molecules vibrate
101
What is amplitude?
Number of air molecules vibrating in sound waves
102
What makes sound more complex?
It is usually a mix of frequencies. Also language and music differ from other auditory inputs
103
How does the ear capture sound waves?
Pinna collects and amplifies sound waves. The middle ear transmits sound energy mechanically to cochlea. The cochlea converts mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
104
How is frequency determined?
Cochlea contains auditory receptor neurons, found next to basilar membrane and convert sound to electrical signals. Different parts of the basilar membrane vibrates at different frequencies
105
How do sound waves become electrical signals?
Auditory receptor cells have hairs attached to basilar membrane of cochlea and vibrate if their frequency is heard. Vibrations physically open/close ion channels
106
What happens if the hairs on the basilar membrane are damaged?
Can lead to hearing loss eg due to repeated exposure to loud sounds, or extremely loud noises which can rupture the eardrum leading to severe/abrupt hearing loss
107
What happens in the auditory pathways?
Receptor neurons in cochlea send axons to regions of brainstem, relayed them to midbrain, thalamus and cerebral cortex. Signals are then processed in both hemispheres, but opposite hemisphere receives preferential input
108
What is the audible spectrum?
In humans it is 20-20,000 Hz. Smaller animals have smaller cochleas and so detect higher frequencies
109
What is sound localisation?
Integrating information from both ears. Neurons grouped together based on frequencies they respond to (tonotopic map). Because music is complex though it requires more sophistocated processing. Language is localised in the left hemisphere, but the right is still important eg for understanding and processing music
110
How long would the sleep wake cycle be naturally?
Without external cues (zeitgebers), the cycle would last about 26 hours, showing endogenous rhythmicity is not the only factor
111
What is the biological clock?
It determines the sleep-wake cycle and is affected by light level changes. It is reset everyday and zeitgebers such as light entrain the biological rhythms
112
What is jet lag?
Disruption of the biological clock. It is likely to be more pronounced travelling West to East
113
What is seasonal affective disorder?
It occurs in the winter months. 60% report increased depression/anxiety/drowsiness. The lack of night signals hibernation, which is why light boxes are suggested to help
114
What is the neural basis of the biological clock?
Located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (pacemaker) of hypothalamus, receives direct input from retina
115
What study looked into the effect of the SCN?
The hamster study which looked at gene mutations and lesions SCNs which were then transplanted. This could correct circadian rhythms as the cycle length is transplanted too
116
What hormone is highly involved in the sleep wake cycle, and how?
Melatonin. More secreted by pineal gland in the dark (indirect action of SCN which also acts on adrenal glands, reducing mood-altering hormones at different points). For this reason it is an artificial, but controversial, treatment for jet lag
117
How does age affect the sleep wake cycle?
Circadian rhythms change with age. In adolescence, melatonin release is delayed by an hour which leads to chronic jet lag, and adolescents going straight to REM if forced to be active first thing in the morning. Raises question of whether the change in melatonin release is brain or behaviour driven
118
What do EEGs show about the changes in brain waves during sleep?
When awake they are low amplitude and high frequency. In deeper sleep they have high amplitude and low frequency, though this sleep is disrupted by pattern bursts of REM sleep which creates brain waves similar to when awake (low amp. and high freq.)
119
What happens during NREM sleep?
Body temperature declines, heart rate decreases, levels of growth hormone increases. Sleep walking, restless leg syndrome, insomnia and sleep apnea happen in this stage. Sleep eating, a possible side effect of prescription sleeping pill Ambien, also occurs at this stage
120
What is sleep walking?
When the person is stuck between sleep and wake. EEGs reveal higher frequency waves, and the cerebellum is active (automatic movement and coordination) while the frontal and parietal lobes are dormant (reasoning and conscious control of movement)
121
What happens during REM sleep?
Paralysed, body temperature increases, EEG resembles wakefulness. If awoken in this stage, dreams are more likely to be reported
122
What are some disorders of REM sleep?
Sleep paralysis (when partly awake in REM, affecting 40%), narcolepsy, and cataplexy (sudden loss of all muscle tone in response to some emotions, entering hypnogogic form of REM, only occurring to narcolepsy sufferers)
123
What are dreams?
Occur in REM, highest activity in occipital areas, and lower in inferior frontal areas. Recent explanation is that cerebral cortex gets sent many signals from brainstem, generating random collection of images from memory stores
124
When do nightmares occur?
In non REM sleep (some dreams do also occur in this stage too)
125
What was the early theory of the function of sleep?
Sleep is just a passive process due to the decrease in sensory stimulation
126
What are the three main functions of sleep thought to be?
Biological adaptation, body restoration, and memory consolidation
127
What is sleep and biological adaptation?
Energy conserving strategy to cope when food is scarce (eg polar bears in the Arctic). Also a form of predator avoidance: prey sleep less as they must remain alert whereas predators can sleep at ease
128
What is sleep as a restorative process?
This is only weakly supported by research, such as research on rats into sleep deprivation, where they show immune response similar to with stress. Found that lack of just 10 mins sleep in rats increased levels of enzyme Nitric Oxide Synthase which is a strong predictor of heart disease and other stress related illnesses (which is why this enzyme plays a role in prompting recovery of sleep)
129
What is sleep and memory storage?
Areas of brain active prior to sleep are active in REM. Sleep usually increases after sessions of learning. Sleep deprivation impairs memory formation. There have also been cases where people who are healthy and active with only a couple hours of sleep a day
130
What brain areas are involved with sleep?
Anterior hypothalamus promotes sleep (preoptic area). Posterior hypothalamus promotes wakefulness through Resticular Activating System of brainstem, which explains how sensory information can wake us up from sleep (damage to this system can lead to comas)
131
What is the neuronal control of sleep?
Neurons controlling sleep are part of regulatory neurotransmitter system. NE, serotonin and ACh neurons fire during waking to enhance awake state (ACh enhances critical REM events). Regulatory systems control rhythmic behaviour of thalamus which controls EEG rhythms of cortex (slow rhythms block flow of sensory info to cortex). Descending activity required to inhibit motor neurons during dreaming
132
What are mechanisms of REM?
Brain stem at pons. Firing rate of locus corerulus and raphe nuclei decrease to nothing. ACh neurons in pons increases firing
133
What are genotypes?
Full set of genes an organism posesses. Different genes are organised into chromosomes. Each somatic cell contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (23rd pair are XX or XY)
134
What are different types of hormones?
Androgens (testosterone), oestrogens (estradiol), progesterone. These are released in different proportions by male and female reproductive organs
135
What are humans a product of?
Action of sex hormones pre-natal. The proportion of sex hormones post-natal. All foetuses would be female without Müllerion inhibitory hormone. Androgens released pre-natal and first week post-natal. Changes in brain, notably the hypothalamus (female hypothalamus releases hormones cyclically whereas released more steadily in males)
136
What are some differences in the male and female brain?
Preoptic nucleus of rats is sexually dismorphic (size correlated with testosterone levels and sexual activity). Estradiol comes from converting testosterone into estradiol by aromatase released by brain. INAH3 is twice as large in males. SCN in males has more neurons
137
What are genetic mutations that affect sexual identity?
Usually genotypic and phenotypic sex are aligned. Turner's syndrome (XO), congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
138
How does the amygdala affect sexual motivation?
Lesions to 'sex neurons' in hypothalamus (preoptic region) of rats stops males mating but still show interest in receptive females. Opposite result when amygdala is lesioned
139
What is the role of the frontal lobe in sexual behaviour?
Lesion studies demonstrate a loss of inhibition/interest
140
What is sexual reward>
Release of excitatory neurotransmitter Dopamine, and hormone oxytocin, also released in final stages of childbirth
141
What are the differences in cognitive ability in males and females?
Women are better at verbal reasoning while males are better at spatial reasoning
142
How does biology affect sexual orientation?
Gay women and straight men have asymmetric brains, whereas gay men and straight women have symmetric brains. There are also amygdala differences
143
What are emotions?
Survival mechanisms that encourage us to do things
144
What area is primarily involved in emotion?
The limbic system
145
What is the network of areas involved in emotional responses?
Emotional stimuli relayed by sensory systems to amygdala. Perception of emotion created by direct/indirect signals from amygdala to frontal cortex. The indirect path involves hypothalamus, messages to autonomic nervous system, physical changes, fed back to frontal cortex, emotion is interpreted
146
How is the amygdala linked to emotional behaviour?
It is part of the limbic system and it's role is seen in lesion studies (Kluver-Bucy syndrome-monkey's tame with lack of fear when medial temporal lobe damaged). Also important role in improving survival chances by minimising contact with anything dangerous (innate and learned response)
147
Who was SM?
Had bilateral damage to amygdala. Impaired in rating variety of emotional expressions, particularly anger and fear. Could not draw a face showing fear, but could both recognise and draw more positive emotions
148
What is James-Lange theory?
Emotions result from changes in body state, not the other way around
149
How is the hypothalamus linked to emotional behaviour?
Neurons in hypothalamus receive connections from amygdala. Animal lesion studies show importance of hypothalamus in emotional response. Lesion to cerebral cortex but intact hypothalamus led to subjects being very aggressive to any external stimulus
150
How are changes in body state associated with emotion?
Autonomic system receives input from hypothalamus. Sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system (fight/flight). ANS has motor and sensory neurons (sensory report physiological changes caused by motor neurons)
151
How does spinal injury affect emotion?
ANS disconnected from brain, decrease in perceived emotion, severity depends on location of lesion
152
How does the prefrontal cortex link to emotion?
In monkeys, neuroticism turned to more relaxed behaviour when lesioned. Maniz-frontal lobotomy
153
What are phobias and tantrums?
Frontal lobe can inhibit unwarranted emotional response. Tantrums are due to undeveloped connection between frontal lobes and limbic system. If these fail to develop in adults, then phobias often arise
154
What is happiness?
Rush of dopamine
155
What generates negative emotions?
Amygdala
156
What is affective mood disorder?
Abnormal regulation of sadness and happiness due to connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex
157
What is depression?
Most commonly linked to decreased levels of serotonin (derived from tryptophan which is also found in chocolate)
158
What is cortical lateralisation in terms of emotion?
Right hemisphere linked with expression and comprehension of emotional aspects of speech (intonation). Left hemisphere linked with positive emotions (negative are more lateralised to the right)
159
How are emotions expressed?
Facial expressions which are similar across cultures, and Darwin states was inherited. Neurons controlling face muscles receive input from the cerebral cortex and limbic system, which is why fake smiles are asymmetric as only involve the motor cortex. Real smiles are more symmetric because the limbic system is also involved
160
How are emotions controlled?
Eg Tibetan monks rid negativity through meditation. They can triple gamma-wave activity in areas of frontal and parietal-temporal lobes when meditating
