Intro 2-Language and Communication Flashcards
1
Q
What is the adaptionist view of what communication is?
A
Relation between a signal (evolved to alter behaviour of another organism) and corresponding response (evolved to be affected by a signal) (Krebs and Dawkins)
2
Q
What is the informational view of what communication is?
A
Biological signals carry ‘information’ (reduction in uncertainty) about the world
3
Q
What are the different types of human communication?
A
Vocal, gesture, facial, body, visual and olfactory
4
Q
What is language?
A
A sophisticated communication system governed by hierarchical rules. Multi-faceted capacity that requires sophisticated cognitive processes
5
Q
What are three characteristics of language?
A
It’s an open and generative system, linguistic signals are referential so can convey specific meanings, and language is semantic, syntactic, morphological and phonological
6
Q
What are the universal features of language?
A
Syntax, semantics, phonology, pragmatics, and morphology
7
Q
What is syntax?
A
Rules and principles that govern structure of language (grammar)
8
Q
What is semantics?
A
Meaning of linguistic units (relationship between a symbol and what it represents)
9
Q
What is phonology?
A
Organisation of speech sounds (phonemes)
10
Q
What is pragmatics?
A
How context contributes to meaning
11
Q
What is morphology?
A
The structure of words, and rules of how they are formed (morphemes)
12
Q
How is language modality independent?
A
Speech, sign language, written language, and speech-accompanying gestures
13
Q
How are humans and chimpanzees related?
A
We did not evolve from chimpanzees, but we shared an ancestor 5-6 million years ago. The chimpanzee is the closest model of what our last common ancestor may have been like
14
Q
Why are primates studied, for example in psychology?
A
Because it is a window into our primate past, and helps understand the roots of language, and language evolution
15
Q
What is communicative flexibility?
A
Vocal learning. Primates have limited capacities for vocal learning though they can readily learn and invent new gestures
16
Q
What is referential communication?
A
Cues to emotion and provide meaning about the world. This is an early form of semantic communication
17
Q
What are playback experiments?
A
They test the meaning of calls, such as in the vervet monkey study of referential alarm calls and food calls
18
Q
What are call sequences evidence of?
A
The evolution of syntax where the order of linguistic elements influence unit meaning
19
Q
What study looked at audience effects and intentionality?
A
The study of Thomas Langur alarm calls. Inform about presence of food when friends are around
20
Q
What is the definition of a gesture?
A
Discrete, mechanically ineffective bodily movements used to communicate intentionally to change behaviour of receiver
21
Q
What are some early ape language studies?
A
Gua, Viki, American sign language studies, and Kanzi
22
Q
Who was Gua?
A
Chimpanzee raised as a child but never produced intelligible words (Kellogg)
23
Q
Who was Viki?
A
A chimpanzee raised as a child with reinforcement training. After 7 years had only 4 poorly articulated words (Hayes)
24
Q
What were some American sign language studies on primates?
A
Washoe the chimp, Koko the gorilla, Chantek the orangutan and Nim the chimp
25
What did Washoe learn?
150-250 signs but understood more
26
What did Nim learn?
Raised as a child but developed and learned slower than humans. Signing was mainly imitative and lacked syntactic rules
27
What was Kanzi?
A language trained bonobo. Had no formal training but could understand 3000 words. He used a lexigram board and demonstrated impressive comprehension and grammar but limited production
28
What questions to ape language studies raise?
It it really language? Highly dependent on rewards, and mainly only ever involves learning demands and requests
29
How has the hominim brain evolved?
Huge brain expansion and crucial differences in brain specialisations, as well as rapid increase in cerebral blood flow. Apes have a cerebellum and frontal lobes. Humans have neocortex and greater intra-cortical connectivity in pre-frontal cortex
30
What does the brain evolution demonstrate about when language evolved?
Homo brain doubles from H.erectus to H.sapiens. Language onset associated with symbolic thought about 100,000 years ago. Language evolution was most likely a very gradual process
31
What is the mirror neuron system in primates?
First discovered in rhesus macaques (Rizolatti et al). Mirror neurons fire when observe someone reaching for an object, but not for the same movement without the object. Considered important for language/imitation/action learning/empathy
32
What did Corballis believe about language evolution?
Language evolved 'hand to mouth'. However it is more likely that it evolved multi-modally
33
What brain areas are used for language?
Broca's area, primary motor cortex, supramarginal gyrus, angular gyrus, Wernicke's area, primary auditory area
34
How does brain laterality relate to language?
Left side for analysis of sequences (comprehension/linguistic sequences). Right side for visual-spatial skills (narratives/prosody/emotions in speech/music)
35
What did split brain studies show in relation to language?
If something shown to left visual field, cannot read and verbally communicate. If shown to right visual field there was linguistic capacity. Only processes in left hemisphere could be verbally described
36
Where is Broca's area?
Left inferior frontal cortex
37
What is Broca's area for?
Language production, particularly sequential patterns
38
What is Broca's aphasia?
Typically due to strokes. Non fluent or hesitant speech. Difficulty naming people and objects. Comprehension intact but struggle with complex grammar. Partial paralysis of one side of body
39
Where is Wernicke's area?
Left posterior temporal cortex
40
What is Wernicke's aphasia?
Fluent but meaningless speech. Unaware of own deficit. Cannot repeat words or recognise speech sounds. Usually no partial paralysis
41
What are the communication milestones from 4-6 months to 19-24 months?
Babbling, joint attention/anticipatory smiles, comprehension of a word, showing to inform others, giving to share with others, comprehension of 50 words, produces first word, vocab explosion, production of word combinations
42
What are three approaches to language development?
Nativist (biological), empiricist (learning), and interactionist
43
What is the nativist approach to language development?
(Chomsky) Focus on child's 'internal' world. Humans are biologically programmed to acquire language and are born with 'language acquisition device' and innate preparation for universal grammar
44
What is the empiricist perspective of language development?
(Skinner; Bruner) Focus on child's 'external' world. Language acquired through learning, and learning is the result of domain-general cognitive abilities. Children learn to construct the world trough their own actions
45
What is the interactionist approach to language development?
(Vygotsky) Biological/environmental/cognitive contributors. Biologically prepared to acquire language but maturation and environment influence development. Gradually maturing nervous system shapes occurrence of universal 'stages'. There is lots of plasticity in language acquisition
46
What support is there for the nativist approach?
Master language quick and easily with little explicit training. Children can invent new languages with no exposure. Newborns are sensitive to linguistic cues
47
What are sensitive periods?
When language readily develops, after which acquisition is more difficult. Linguistic competence is predicted by age of acquisition. Newport demonstrates the relationship between age of exposure and proficiency (in second language learners)
48
What are the limitations to the nativist approach?
'Universal grammar' has not been identified. Neuroscience highlights distributed nature of language. Focus on word learning and syntax neglects other aspects
49
What are the building blocks of speech?
2months cooing (vowel sounds) and at 3-4 months proto-phones (early speech sounds)
50
What is babbling?
At 4-6months, meaningless speech sounds. Culturally specific incorporating sounds from native language
51
How can speech development be scaffolded by parents?
'Motherese'-infant directed speech characterised by pointing and exaggerated facial expressions
52
What is the vocabulary explosion at 18months?
Once know 50 words, vocab rapidly increases to learning about 50-100 words per month. They learn more the more speech is addressed to them, and by age 5 know on average 10,000
53
When does gesture develop?
Around 10-12 months, and predicts spoken language development
54
Why is pointing a cognitive milestone?
It can be imperative (request) or declarative (sharing information/directing attention). It starts at around 12 months
55
What studies have been conducted on infants to do with pointing?
Study using 14-24 month olds where toy is hidden in container and point at correct one, infant then chooses. Also study with 12-18 month olds where action is done with object, object and distractor object is hidden, infants point to inform adult of object location when adult starts looking around for the object
56
What was found with the KE family?
Half the family show severe speech/language disorders. Pattern of inheritance suggest mutation of single gene (autosomal dominant inheritance)
57
What did Fisher find?
Affected members of KE family all shared mutation of the FOXP2 gene on chromosome 7
58
What is the FOXP2 gene?
Regulator gene. Encodes a protein of 715 amino acids. Necessary for development of speech and language but is not a 'gene for speech'. Versions of it found in many animals and birds. Has many functions eg development of lungs and gut. Is an evolutionary ancient gene
59
How does the FOXP2 gene vary between humans, and other animals?
3amino acid changes between mice and humans, and 2 between chimpanzees and humans, yet this has a massive effect for speech and language evolution (likely recent target of selection)
60
What are evaluation points for FOXP2 gene?
Important in regulating genetic network of speech and language. Has a long evolutionary history. Is only one part of the genetic puzzle of language, many other genes are also involved
61
What are neural mechanisms for speech?
Broca's area and Wernicke's area
62
How are Broca's and Wernicke's area connected?
Via the arcuate fasciculus
63
What are the anatomical mechanisms for speech?
Speech and vocal tract anatomy (larynx/diaphragm/oral cavity/vocal folds etc). Evolution of extended larynx allows considerable vocal flexibility
64
How has vocal control evolved?
Primates have less control of vocal anatomy. Evidence of some vocal control, suggesting mechanisms for speech have deep evolutionary roots
65
What is the motor theory of speech perception?
(Lieberman) Speech perception is innate, human unique and involves perception of vocal tract gestures
66
What is the auditory theory of speech perception?
Speech perception based only on acoustic properties for speech. Perception dependent on auditory mechanisms. Not uniquely-human. Can be shaped through genetics and learning
67
What has tested these theories of speech perception?
categorical speech production in infants (Eimasetal) supports both theories that it's innate. Avoidance conditioning study with chinchillas-human unique (Kuhl and Miller). Panzee-experience is critical supporting auditory theory. McGurk Effect (based on knowledge of vocal tract gestures) supports motor theory
68
What are two core features of syntax?
Duality of patterns and recursion
69
What is duality of pattern?
All language is built on this. Phonemes to morphemes (meaningless parts combine to become meaningful units. Compositionality-combined to form higher order compositions (rules + meaningful combinations)
70
What is recursion?
Word recursion and phrase recursion. Nesting rules and meaning
71
What is Zipf's Law of Brevity?
Words used more frequently tend to be shorter in length. Evidence in primates as well as humans
72
What is Menzerath's Law of Compression?
Greater the whole, the smaller the size of constituent parts
73
What are principles of word learning?
Fast mapping (fast but repeated exposure needed) and slow mapping (exposure but in different contexts)
74
What do children expect in relation to language?
Mutual exclusivity (Dax experiment), whole object assumption, taxonomic assumption (categories rather than themes), shape bias. Children also show over-regulation (extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words)
75
How common are gestures?
Used in all cultures. Even people born blind use gestures when talking. Speech and gestures are an integrated system
76
What are the different types of gestures?
Iconic, metaphoric, emblems, pointing, beats
77
What are iconic gestures?
Represent objects, actions or spatial relations
78
What are metaphoric gestures?
Represent abstract ideas or concepts
79
What are emblems?
Conventional gestures that have meaning in a community
80
What are beats?
Maintain rhythm of speech, with no semantic information
81
How do gestures link to thought?
Helps speaker communicate complex information and helps process it themselves. Produce more speech gestures when describing complex spatial information (cube rotation task)
82
What is the information packaging hypothesis?
(Kita) gestures help speaker organise and break down complex visuo-spatial information into smaller 'packages' that can then be verbalised as speech
83
What is embodied cognition?
Notion that the body influences how we think and communicate
84
What are home signs?
Deaf children in speaking families without exposure to sign language develop home signs, which show many linguistic properties such as lexicons and syntax
85
What is Nicaraguan Sign language?
Developed by deaf children in Nicaragua. Language requires a community and generations
86
Why is sign language different to home signs or gestures?
Doesn't depend on spoken language. It also has a syntactic, morphological and phonological structure
87
What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
Hypothesis on linguistic relativity
88
What did Whorf suggested?
Hopi people have different concept of time due to differences in terminology for time
89
What did Everett find?
Pircha people have no terms for large numbers
90
What did Robertson et al find?
Influence of language on categorical perception of colour, study with brain damaged patients. Similarly other research found language can influence colour discrimination tasks
91
What are the arguments agains the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
Focuses on language as a culturally-specific (Chomsky argues for innate universal grammar). Pinker suggests Whorf misunderstood Hopi concept of time. Vague and lacks adequate evidence. Follow up on the colour discrimination task using different question found no differences
92
How is human communication cooperative and intentional?
Intentionally share and exchange information with each other. Monitor and adapt to receivers response, based on their knowledge state. Pointing is also intentional reference to share knowledge and influence receivers mental state
93
What do human communicators work hard to achieve?
Common ground (knowledge and beliefs shared between two communicators-linked to theory of mind)
94
Do chimpanzees understand pointing?
They can follow a point but do not know it is meaningful or informative. Dogs however can understand pointing, which may be due to domestication
95
What are ostensive cues?
Cues about our intention to inform or teach. Children with autism struggle to detect these cues
96
What did Grice look at?
He explored how individuals communicate intentionally to inform (Gricean communication-cognitively complex)
