Intro 2-Social Psychology Flashcards
(135 cards)
1
Q
What does social psychology investigate?
A
Psychology of social behaviours. Social aetiology of cognition. Social approach to methodology
2
Q
How is social psychology investigated?
A
Lab experiments, observations, questionnaires, interviews and focus groups
3
Q
What are different theoretical approaches?
A
Social learning/constructivism, cognitive constraints/models, evolutionary (social) psychology-random variation and systematic selection-controversial-critics confuse levels of explanation (biological determinism and naturalistic fallacy)
4
Q
How has the replication crisis affected psychology?
A
75% social psychology studies, and half are cognitive psychology studies
5
Q
What is evidence of the fact that humans are inherently social?
A
Minimal group paradigm (Tajfel). Dunbar-living socially was a major driving force in the evolution of the human brain. Dunbar’s number-150
6
Q
What is affiliation and sociality necessary for?
A
Health, cooperation and cultural transmission
7
Q
Why is affiliation necessary for health?
A
Berkman and Breslow 20 year longitudinal study. Social support protects against major depression, and providing it may be more important than receiving it. Camaraderie also protects against emotional burnout in firefighters, and synchronised training leads to a higher pain tolerance in rowers
8
Q
Why is affiliation necessary for cooperation?
A
Trading, hunting, warfare and intergroup competition. Eg Sherif et al Robbers cave study (spontaneous group divisions and cooperation required for superordinate goal). Newson et al-intergroup violence supports social cohesion in Brazilian football fans
9
Q
Why is affiliation necessary for cultural transmission?
A
Gossip (20% of waking time is spent in conversation). Dunbar found this in dining hall conversations monitored every 30 seconds. Needed for social learning. Sherif-single light in dark room-information conformity
10
Q
How do friendships differ from romantic relationships?
A
Rubin-love is more that just lots of liking. Sternberg’s triarchic model of love (intimacy/passion/commitment). Friends are due to proximity, similarity and reciprocity. Relationships are due to these things but also physical attraction
11
Q
What is passion?
A
Arousal and attribution. Dutton and Aron’s experiment with high suspension bridge vs low sturdy bridge led to misattribution of arousal
12
Q
What is lust/attraction/attachment?
A
Fisher-3 independent systems. Lust is androgen mediated, attraction is dopamine mediate, and attachment is oxytocin mediated
13
Q
What is proximity in relationships?
A
Mere exposure effect. Propinquity and opportunity for interaction. Expectation of close interaction
14
Q
What is similarity in relationships?
A
Newcomb-accommodation study. Heider and Newcomb-Balance theory. Festinger-social comparison theory
15
Q
What is similarity in romantic attraction?
A
Byrne et al who paired blind dates and found that similarity was a strong predictor, though so was attractiveness
16
Q
What does the role of similarity depend on?
A
How much commitment is desired (Amodio and Showers)
17
Q
What is the role of reciprocity?
A
Dittes and Kelley looked at group discussion and fake ‘approval ratings’, and found that reciprocity can make up for the absence of similarity
18
Q
What is social exchange theory?
A
Keep track of rewards and costs, then determine profits. Satisfaction level=outcome-comparison level. Dependence=outcome-comparison level for alternatives
19
Q
What is equality?
A
Person 1’s rewards equal person 2’s rewards
20
Q
What is equity?
A
Person 1’s rewards-costs equal person 2’s rewards-costs
21
Q
What is equity theory?
A
Fair distribution of rewards and costs. It is the balance that counts
22
Q
What does Campbell say about equity theory?
A
Emotions, not rational calculation, drive human behaviour
23
Q
What was Walster et al’s classic psychology study of attractiveness?
A
Computer design paradigm. Physical attractiveness predicted liking and intention to ask out again, however, the chance of a fifth date depended on similarity in attractiveness (Mathes)
24
Q
What is the halo effect?
A
Attractiveness causes a halo effect, leading to belief that the person has more positive attributes and so receive more positive life time outcomes
25
What is the matching hypothesis?
Similarity in attractiveness is important, more so when in long term relationships (Berscheid and Walster)
26
How can beauty be seen as objective?
High level of agreement across cultures (Langlois et al), certain features reliably associated with attractiveness (Cunningham), babies prefer attractive faces
27
How can beauty be seen as subjective?
Beauty is improved differently across cultures (Newman), different cultures have different body type preference (Anderson) and this also varies over time (Silverstein et al)
28
What was Tovee et al's study?
Attractiveness ratings of BMIs with Zulus, Zulu migrants, and black British people. Similar study to Boothroyd et al in Nicaragua looking at attractiveness of BMIs and access to TV
29
What is the cognitive approach to attraction?
Facial prototype and attraction to 'averageness'-visual adaptation test with Rhodes et al
30
What does the cognitive approach to attraction find when looking at infants?
Average vs unattractive faces (Rubenstein et al), the distinctiveness preference (Rhodes et al, and Gilffrey and Little), and neonates-innate facial representation (Slater et al)
31
What does the cognitive approach to attraction find when looking at children?
Story book experiments (Anzures et al), mixed vs signle sex school and preference for more masculine or feminine faces (Saxton et al), and age of peers and feature height (Cooper et al)
32
What does the evolutionary approach to attraction look at?
Sexual selection and human mating patterns
33
What is sexual selection?
Inter-sexual selection-preference of a gene increases frequency of that gene in future generations
34
What are the different human mating patterns?
Monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, and promiscuity
35
What did Trivers look at?
Anisogomy and different parental investments
36
What is sexual strategies theory?
Buss and Schmitt. Look at obligate parental investment
37
What are male priorities?
Proceptivity and fertility in the short term, and youth, fertility and faithfulness in the long term
38
What are female priorities?
Good genes in the short term, and resources, status and generosity in the long term
39
What are fertility cues?
Waist-hip ration (Singh et al), and femininity (Law Smith et al
40
What are good genes in the evolutionary theory of attraction?
Honest advertising, handicap principle (Zahavi), positive infestation (Hamilton and Zuk), immunocompetence (Folstad and Karter), and average represents genetic quality
41
What are attraction universals?
Averageness, femininity in women, symmetry and health
42
Why is symmetry attractive?
Cue to health and benefits
43
How is symmetry a cue to health?
Jones et al measured symmetry of 60 faces, and symmetry predicted apparent health and skin patch health
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What are the benefits of symmetry?
Offspring inherit immunity to current pathogens, and avoidance of infection
45
What are the variations in preference
Sticklebacks (Kraak and Bakker), zebra finches (Burley et al), relationship specific investment inventory (Gangstead and Thornhill), explicit mate advertisements (Pawlowski and Dunbar), and more attractive females prefer more symmetric men (Little et al)
46
How does variation in preferences affect evolutionary theory?
Variation questions evolution
47
What is ornamentation?
Variation and attractiveness varies across cultures. Include tattoos and dominance (Wohlraub et al)
48
What are parental characteristics?
Sexual imprinting, assortative mating, Perrett et al
49
What are gender roles?
Behaviours considered appropriate for males or females
50
What is gender identity?
Perception of self as male or female
51
Is sex dichotomous?
No
52
What are sex chromosome atypicalities?
1 in 400 live births affected. Include X0 (Turner's syndrome), XXX, and XXY (Klinefelter's syndrome)
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What can atypical hormone exposure in utero cause?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and androgen insensitivity syndrome
54
Why are testosterone levels not necessarily the best measure when looking at sex and gender?
Many men's testosterone levels are indistinguishable from 'above average' women
55
What did Joel et al find?
Sex differences in brain regions in 1400 brains
56
Is gender identity dichotomous?
No
57
What did the EHRC find?
1.3% of the UK population identify as gender variant
58
How can sex differences be measured?
Experiments (lab based behavioural tests), psychometric tests (pencil and paper tests which are assessed for reliability and validity), meta analyses (combines findings from multiple studies, and summarises d scores weighted by sample size)
59
What d scores were found in experimental studies?
(males>females) physical aggression d=.40, individual contribution d=.38, social task performance d=-.58, influenced by group pressure d=-.32
60
What is the Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)?
Suggested masculinity and femininity were two separate dimensions, not mutually exclusive. A list of words were generated and raters were asked to state whether they were more desirable in men or in women. Women score higher on femininity scale while men score higher on masculinity scale
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What are some problems with the BSRI?
Peoples ratings of selves don't relate to self ratings on rest of scales. Also masculinity and femininity are not statistically independent. Others also argue Bem's scale measures something other than masculinity/femininity: expressive vs instrumentality (Spence), nurturance vs dominance (Wiggins), communion vs agency (Bakon)
62
What are explanations for differences that exist in social behaviour?
Cultural and social approaches (learning theory, gender schema theory, and social role theory), and biological approaches (evolutionary arguments, and biological development)
63
What is the standard social science model?
Sex is irrelevant. Gender is learned and socially imposed. Initial studies showed potential differences of boys and girls but it is hard to link these gender outcomes
64
What is learning theory?
Boys and girls are encouraged and rewarded for different behaviours, eg Baby X studies. Meta analyses however found no support except for sex-typed toys and chores (Lytton and Romney)
65
What is social learning theory?
Bandura emphasised importance of modelling. Sex of model by sex of child interaction not found in over 80 studies (Maccoby and Jacklin). Imitation found when model engages in sex typical behaviour
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What was Perry and Bussey's study?
Creating sex typical behaviour. Children watch 8 adult models (4 male/4 female) perform sequentially, selecting one of two stimuli, in 16 trials
67
What are cultural and social developmental approaches?
Lead to gender schema theory: attend to gender-typed information as schema develops, but no correlation between gender stereotype knowledge or sophistication of gender knowledge and sex-typed behaviours (Ruble and Martin)
68
What did Liben et al find?
Perceiving self as more sex-typed predicts later gender stereotyping in children
69
How prevalent is the media?
Daily, four year olds watch 2 hours of TV, and 12 year olds watch 4 hours
70
What are children's characters in the media like?
Mostly male (Signorielli) and are still gender stereotyped (Zerbinos)
71
What is social role theory?
Culturally imposed gendered division of labour leads to conformity to gender role expectations, and sex typed skills and beliefs, which both lead to sex differences in behaviour
72
Does the division of labour cause stereotypes?
Stereotypes are robust (Williams and Best) and have remained consistent over the last 50 years
73
Do stereotypes cause behaviour?
Stereotype threat and maths performance (Spencer, Steele and Quinn). Sex differences in impulsivity seem to be declining as we become more egalitarian (cross et al's meta analysis)
74
What are some problems with seeing stereotypes as causes of behaviour?
However children show sex differences in behaviour before they have stereotypes. Stereotypes underestimate some differences. Also sex differences in some personality traits in egalitarian societies have become larger not smaller (Costa, Terraccino and McCrae)
75
How strong is the division of labour?
Mead 'sex and temperament'-made strong clams about variation in gender roles between cultures
76
Are certain tasks exclusively gendered in all cultures?
Ember-Standard Cross Cultural Sample. Tasks are exclusively male or female tasks, or predominantly male or female tasks
77
What did Marlow find?
Foraging activities vary in gender divisions
78
How did Wood and Eagly adapt social role theory?
'Biosocial reformulation'. Added biological differences between sexes to the culturally imposed division of labour
79
What are the different types of sexual selection?
Inter sexual selection and intra sexual selection
80
What is inter sexual selection?
Opposite sex prefers some traits more than others, increasing frequency of those genes in next generation
81
What is intra sexual selection?
Some traits make an individual a better competitor against members of own sex
82
What is parental investment, in terms of evolutionary theory?
The sex with lower parental investment tends to compete for mating access, while the sex with higher investment tend to be more 'choosy'. This, in most species, leads to competitive males and choosy females
83
How are males seen in evolutionary theory?
Compete for females. Reproductive success depends on number of sexual partners, meaning polygyny can benefit males if successful. Polygyny leads to competition for dominance and resources. Traits that led to success are passed on. Can predict greater dominance striving, competitiveness and aggression in men
84
How are females seen in evolutionary theory?
More important to offspring survival. Those who avoid danger have higher reproductive success. Intra-female tensions need diverting safely and women need safety in numbers. Women more likely to engage in foraging than hunting. Can predict more risk aversion, lower aggression, stronger social skills in women, and a possible sex difference in spatial reasoning
85
What are the key assumptions of evolutionary theory?
Ancestral polygyny, genetic inheritance, and biological causation
86
How do biology and gender link to evolution?
Selection acts through genes
87
What are sex linked genes?
On X or Y chromosomes (allosomes)
88
What are sex limited genes?
'Turned on' by presence of sex hormones (autosomes). Most sex differences are sex limited
89
What are Y chromosomes?
Small, and carry the SRY gene
90
What is testosterone?
An androgen that causes organising and activating effects
91
What are the organising effects of testosterone?
Foetal production of testosterone. 6 weeks gestation and 3 months post-partum
92
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Surge of adrenal testosterone in utero due to metabolic error and cortisol deficiency
93
What evidence is there for sex differences in infancy behaviour?
Evidence is limited. Else-Quest completed a meta analysis. Pasterski et al found early testosterone exposure may predict later play typicality
94
What are the activating effects of testosterone?
Testosterone rises again at pubery (Batista boys)
95
Who were the Batista boys?
Family with rare genetic disorder. XY foetuses under exposed to testosterone in utero. 18 'boys' raised unambiguously as girls. At puberty all experienced release of testosterone. 17/18 then identified as male, and 16/18 took male gender roles. (Imerato-McGinley)
96
How can the social and biological approaches be brought together?
Canalised development. Genes create finite number of options for the environment to 'choose from' or refine. Also biosocial theory looking at Bruce-Brenda-David (aka John/Joan)
97
What are more resent biosocial approaches?
Pre-natal testosterone affects response to information on toy 'gender typicality'
98
What are two methods of study of aggression?
Observation (mainly used in children, and is ecologically valid, but time consuming and possibly unethical), laboratory studies such as shocks and 'negative rating' studies (point subtraction method but may not really be ecologically valid), and self report questionnaires (allow large samples, but question validity as they rely on memory and honesty)
99
What does Buss and Perry's aggressive questionnaire look at?
'Trait' aggressiveness vs actual aggression. Conflict tactics scale
100
How can aggression be classified?
Verbal/physical. Direct/indirect. Instrumental/expressive
101
What are types of aggression?
Direct (identifiable aggressor), indirect (hidden aggressor), instrumental (in order to achieve a goal), expressive (anger)
102
What are expressive theories of aggression?
Freud's psychoanalytic theory, Dollard et al's frustration-aggression theory, Berkowitz' common sense argument, and Berkowitz' cognitive neo-associationist theory
103
What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory?
Weak ego. Thonatos later theory expands to suggest drive requires discharge through catharsis
104
What studies look at catharsis?
Shock after attack increases punitiveness (Berkowitz), Aggression in US football players increases over course of the season (Patterson), spectator hostility increases during match (Russell), catharsis beliefs may be harmful
105
What is Dollard et al's frustration-aggression theory?
Frustration is interference with goal response that leads to reward. Aggression always results from frustration though frustration does not always lead to aggression
106
What does the level of aggression depend on?
Whether it will end the frustration (Buss), and whether subsequenet account of frustration is offered (Obuchi et al)
107
What is Berkowitz' common sense argument?
Environmental factors such as high temperature and unpleasant stimuli also cause aggression
108
What is Berkowitz' cognitive neo-associationist theory?
Aversive event (frustration but also heat etc), unspecific negative affect with two possible behavioural reactions of fight or flight
109
What are instrumental aggression theories?
Social learning, media, and cultural effects
110
What is social learning?
Operant conditioning/modelling. Social learning theory (patterson) is reinforcement. Bandura and MacDonald, models (more mature judgements), reinforcement or no feedback. Bandura, Ross and Ross, Bobo doll study with variation in type of model
111
What studies look at TV and aggression?
Joy et al introduction of TV in BC towns (none, same, or limited TV). Johnston et al long term longitudinal correlations between 14 and 18/22 year olds
112
What studies look at computer games and aggression?
Anderson and Bushman meta analysis where games increase aggressiveness, decrease prosocial and increase arousal, but angry people who believe in catharsis are drawn to violent games. Anderson et al clear effect across longitudinal studies. Bushman and Gibson experiment with 126 students, aggression 24 hours later tested by giving 'losers' in task a noise blast
113
What are cultural effects?
Nisbett-culture of honour-settler mentality culturally transmitted though generations. Argument related homicides 6x higher in southern than northern US states. Southerners endorse violence as legitimate response to insult and for protection. Cohen et al confederate study (stress response and dominance challenged)
114
What is Felson's symbolic interactionist framework?
'Face' as critical social currency. Rules of conversation require cooperation (Mutual facework-Goffman). Retaliation deters further attack and saves face, but threatens face of other party leading to possible conflict spiral
115
What do evolutionary approaches suggest about aggression?
Most lethal violence is male-male (Archer). Sex differences appear before 2 years (Potegal and Archer) and before children can apply gender labels (Campbell, Shirly and Caygill)
116
What are the evolutionary theories of aggression?
Daly and Wilson, and Campbell
117
What is Daly and Wilson's evolutionary theory of aggression?
Mate competition is key. Differences in risk vs gain. "Subculture of violence" Wolfgang and Ferracuti
118
What is Campbells evolutionary theory of aggression?
Focuses on costs to women, who have more blood/animal phobias (Marks) and rate situations as more dangerous despite less risk (Bettencourt and Miller). Female aggression is non-violent and indirect (Björkqvist). Female aggression is expressive whereas ma;e aggression is instrumental
119
Can evolutionary approaches merge instrumental and expressive aggression?
Heritability suggests genetic component. Testosterone and aggression looks at dominance behaviours and adaptive feedback loop. Inhibitory control and impulsivity is a mediator for sex differences in aggression
120
What is evidence of bystanders not intervening?
Kitty Genovese's murder
121
What are Latané and Darley's 5 steps to emergency intervention, and the reasons why these may not happen?
Notice (distraction/self concerns), interpret event as emergency (ambiguity/relationship/pluralistic ignorance), take responsibility for providing help (diffusion of responsibility), decide how to help (lack of competence), provide help (audience inhibition/costs vs rewards)
122
What study demonstrates pluralistic ignorance?
Latané and Darley-smoke-timed how long until there was a reaction. When alone, 50% reacted in two minutes and 75% in 6 minutes, but when with another person, 12% reacted in 2 minutes and 38% in six minutes
123
What study demonstrates diffusion of responsibility?
Looks at whether help is given in 60 seconds when someone is 'having an epileptic fit'. When it is just the participant, 85% did, when there were two other people present, 62% did, then when there were four other people, 31% helped in 60 seconds
124
What does Bickman say about diffusion of responsibility?
Responsibility not diffused when co-witnesses are clearly not able to help
125
What does Moriarty say about diffusion of responsibility?
Responsibility not diffused when specifically attached to a bystander
126
What did Fischer et al find about moderators of the bystander effect?
Meta-analytic review found overall effect size of d=-.35 for bystander apathy. The bystander effect is reduced when there is clear danger with no ambiguity, but is increased among females and strangers/in a lab setting/with more bystanders
127
What is kin selection?
Genes are the unit of selection (inclusive fitness). Coefficient of genetic relatedness should be related to altruism. Hamilton's rule
128
What is Hamilton's rule?
C
129
What is evidence of the effect of kin selection?
Vignettes-fire at vacation complex (Sime). Live organ donation (Borgida et al). Burnstein et al costs v risks + relatedness considered
130
What does Trivers say about reciprocal altruism?
Delayed 'playback' of altruistic acts where the benefit to recipient is high, cost to donor is low, and there is likelihood the position will be reversed in the future
131
What are necessary conditions of reciprocal altruism?
Social species, stable groups, good face recognition, good long term memory, non-cooperation with/punishment of defectors
132
What is the prisoners dilemma?
Cooperation of individuals when there is a chance of risk and benefits, when individuals are separated. Axelrod-iterated games-T4T or GT4T (Nowak and Sigmund). Hawk and dove analogy
133
How does reciprocal altruism work?
Trivers: emotional mediation. Obligation and gratitude, guilty, anger, positive mood (enhances likelihood of helping behaviour)
134
What is evidence of reciprocal altruism in reality?
Primate grooming (meta analysis by Schino and Aureli
135
What is evidence of reciprocal altruism in reality, in humans?
P1 rewards/p2 costs=p2rewards/p2 costs. Norm of reciprocity. Eg Fehr and Gächter public goods game for money, altruistic punishment and strong reciprocity. Competitive altruism and reputation
