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intro and fallacies Flashcards

1
Q

scientific claim

A

facts, state of affairs in the world; true/false; Descriptive

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2
Q

Moral claim

A

values, beliefs coming from certain moral views; approved/non-approvable; consistent/ inconsistent; Normative

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3
Q

Ethics

A

comes from the term ‘behaviour’ (ethos) in greek,
evaluates moral choices and actions;

depends on theories, concepts, and principles used to evaluate the values

Ethics is not a matter of rationality only

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4
Q

morality

A

a set of rules/principles that represent responses to ethical issues and get public consensus

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5
Q

Moralizing

A

giving moral judgements and /or increasing the severity of your moral attributions

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6
Q

Moralism

A

the habit of moralizing

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7
Q

Law

A

deals with regulations and prescriptions at the state/interntional level;

connected with political authority and existence of certain procedures such as sanctions, punishment etc.

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8
Q

Meta ethics

A

theoretical; nature of moral properties, judgements, etc.

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9
Q

Normative ethics

A

Practical means and tools; standards of right and wrong

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10
Q

Applied ethics

A

specific determinations; the analysis of particular moral issues

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11
Q

Bioethics

A

is an applied ethics,
conditions to judge certain actions as right/wrong to pursue certain goals

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12
Q

Converging

A

a set of rules exist based on ethical principles; aka law and ethics converge;
may converge in 2 forms - moralistic-paternalistic approach or liberal approach

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13
Q

Diverging

A

Laws differ from ethical principles, case-study post-liberal approach

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14
Q

Paternalistic approach

A

an external entity limits persons autonomy/groups liberty pretending to know better

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15
Q

Libertarian approach

A

emphasizes individual’s liberty and autonomy

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16
Q

Eurobarometers

A

since 1974 a series of opinion polls has been conducted on the european population on behalf on the european commission

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17
Q

Argumentation

A

consists of providing reasons to defend a view
arises in response to/in anticipation of a difference in opinion
consists of propositions
consists of a claim (conclusion) supported by evidence (premises)

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18
Q

fallacies

A

basic illogical/inferential mistakes
invalid or faulty reasoning

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19
Q

biases

A

psychological tendencies

systematic, persistent flawed patterns of reasoning

unconscious, unintentional

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20
Q

rationality

A

concerns the standard principles to reason correctly
ethics is not a matter of rationality only
logic and science are counter-intuitive

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21
Q

yuck factor

A

expression coined by Arthur Caplan.

defines the phenomena that most people instinctively reject fearsome/ repugnant things, especially when they are unfamiliar

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22
Q

Heuristics

A

Term produced by Herbert Simon

Fast, frugal way of problem-solving, special adaptive tools we posses in uncertain situations

Selected by evolution to face situations in ancestral environments (Gigrenzer)

eg. the Garcia effect
–> conditioned taste aversion after indigestion

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23
Q

proposition

A

asserts that something is the case (affirm x) or it asserts something is not the case (deny y)

either true or false

even if truth/falsity is unknown

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24
Q

Argument

A

One proposition (conclusion) is affirmed based on other propositions (premises)

correct/incorrect

inference ties propositions from premises to conclusion

A MATERIAL IMPLICATION BETWEEN THE COMBINATION OF PREMISES

if an ethical argument is based on false premises it is unjustified (not a logical error but an error in knowledge)

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25
Deductive
If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true conclusion is contained in the premises
26
inductive (weak vs strong)
only probable; if the premise is true, the conclusion is likely true, the conclusion adds something new to the premises (it is a prediction)
27
fallacy
A typical incorrect argument, mistakes in reasoning that exhibit a pattern that can be identified and names
28
Falsifiability
criterion for demarcating science from non-science (Karl Popper) A single counter-instance falsifies some belief Replicability is the core of the scientific method
29
naturalistic fallacies
case of defective induction, false cause very much debated in meta-ethics enunciated by David Hume
30
Rhetoric
The art to persuade others
31
Sophism
confusing or slightly incorrect argument used to deceive someone
32
Machiavellianism
the psychological trait of deceiving others, in order to get some personal gains, especially social power
33
Fallacies of relevance (7)
Most numerous and frequent, PREMISES OF THE ARGUMENT NOT RELEVANT TO THE CONCLUSION, they derive because they are made to appear relevant - Appeal to populace - Appeal to emotion - Red herring - Straw man - Attack on person - Appeal to force - Missing the point (irrelevant conclusion)
34
Fallacies of defective induction (4)
mistake arises form the fact that THE PREMISES (although relevant to the conclusion) ARE WEAK AND INEFFECTIVE - Argument from ignorance - Appeal to inappropriate authority - False cause - Hasty generalization
35
Fallacies of presumption (3)
TOO MUCH IS ASSUMED IN THE PREMISES; inference to a conclusion mistakenly depends on unwarranted assumptions - Accident - Complex question - Begging the question
36
Fallacies of ambiguity (5)
Incorrect reasoning arises from the EQUIVOCAL USE OF WORDS OR PHRASES ; meanings of the same word/phrase differ in the argument - Equivocation - Amphiboly - Accent - Composition - Division
37
Appeal to the populace (Argumentum ad Populum)
it is the attempt to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing feelings of the multitude (aka appeal to popular belief e.g. nationalism) Sheer emotion offered as the premise of an argument is fallacious
38
Appeal to emotion
The effort to elicit some emotion Appeal to pity (ad miscericordiam) --> When the premises boil down to no more than a merciful heart (generosity, mercy) Other emotions: Fear (ad metum), hatred (ad odium); pride (ad superbium), envy (ad invidiam)
39
Red herring
Think smoked herring to deflect dogs attention Lies in deflecting attention: leading the focus away from the issue under the discussion.
40
The Straw man
an opponent's position is depicted as being more extreme or unreasonable than is justified by what was actually asserted (misquoting) making it easily torn apart
41
Argument against the person (ad hominem)
The adverse reaction is directed to the person instead of the conclusion. Character of the person is not related to the conclusion they are asserting, making this argument fallacious Abusive: Based on character aspects of a person believed to be bad. Most common accusation of guilty by association Circumstantial: Circumstances of a person who makes/rejects some claim has nothing to do with the conclusion When circumstances are used in a negative spirit to devalue the opponents opinion
42
Appeal to force (ad baculum)
Affirming a position as true by resulting to force. Based on coercion. Not only physical. Appeal to force is the abandonment of reason
43
Missing the point (irrelevant conclusion; ignoratio elenchi)
Premises support a different conclusion from the one that is proposed may on occasion be an instrument of deception.
44
The argument from ignorance (ad ignorantiam)
Arguing something is true because it hasn't been proven false (or vice versa). Ignorance sometimes obliges us to suspend judgement (not assigning truth or falsity yet)
45
Appeal to inappropriate authority (ad verecundiam)
Argument that proposition is true because an expert in a given field said so. Fallacious when the experts area of expertise is not relevant to the conclusion
46
False cause (non cause pro causa)
an event is presumed to have been caused by a closely preceding event that has nothing to do with it Post hoc ergo propter hoc: mere temporal succession does not establish causality Slippery slope taking a step will lead to further damage. A fallacy in which a change in direction is asserted to lead to inevitably further changes (usually undesirable) in the same direction
47
Hasty generalization (converse accident)
A fallacy in which one moves carelessly from a single case, or very few cases, to a large-scale generalization about all or most cases
48
Accident
generalization that is largely true may not apply in a given case (or to some subcategory of cases) for good reasons
49
complex question (plurium interrogationum)
to ask a rhetorical question, in such a way as to presuppose the truth of some conclusion that is buried in the question
50
Begging the question (petito principii)
The conclusion of an argument is stated or assumed in any one of the premises. Also known as circular reasoning
51
Equivocation
When two words with different meanings are used interchangeably in different parts of the argument (accidentally or intentionally)
52
Amphiboly
A fallacy in which a loose or awkward combination of words can be interpreted in more than one way; The premise is based on one interpretation and the conclusion on another
53
Accent
When an argument contains a premise that relies on one possible emphasis of certain words, but the conclusion relies on a different emphasis that gives those words different meaning
54
Composition
An argument erroneously assigns attributes to a whole (or to a collection) based on the fact that parts of that whole (or members of that collection) have those attributes. Confuses distributive and collective terms
55
Division
Reverse of the fallacy of composition. Assigning parts of a whole (or to members of a collection) based on the fact that the whole (or the collection) has those attributes
56
The Naturality argument
The more scientific applications are considered threats to the 'natural order' the more they are objected morally
57
cognitive dissonance
mental stress experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas or values at the same time, or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values
58
Epistemic Blindness or resistance to change
when people are confronted with evidence that is 'inconsistent with their beliefs', they first respond by refuting the information, then band together with like-minded dissenters and champion their own hard-set opinion
59
Confabulation
To defend their beliefs people start producing reasons to defend their previous beliefs
60
Homo oeconomicus
The agent in classical economic models A Homo oeconomicus, or "economic man," is a theoretical individual who acts rationally, always making decisions to maximize personal utility and self-interest based on complete information.
61
epistemology
the study of knowledge
62
logic
the study of correct arguments has to do with rationality it concerns the standard principles to reason correctly
63
Fallacy vs. Biases
Both have to do with reasoning Fallacies relate to an argument Cognitive biases relate to patterns of thought Logic vs. psychology
64
Linda experiment
1983 Kahneman and Tversky choosing a conjunction even though the probability is less probable Happens because of the representativeness heuristic - people judge probability based on how well the description matches their stereotypes, rather than on logical reasoning
65
The Lawyers and Engineers Experiment
by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky that demonstrates the Base Rate Fallacy - a cognitive bias where people ignore general statistical information in favour of specific details
66
The Ice cream Parlor Experiment
Shafir Simonson and Tversky 1993 It illustrates how irrelevant options or the presence of too many choices can lead to poor decision-making due to decision overload and paradox of choice compatibility bias - Positive dimensions are weighted more heavily in choosing than in rejecting, and negative dimensions are weighted more heavily in rejecting than in choosing
67
Milgram Obedience experiment
1963 how ordinary people could commit harmful actions under the influence of authority authority figures can strongly influence people's moral decision-making, power of situational factors
68
Stanford prison experiment
1971 Philip Zimbardo The effects of perceived power and authority on behavior, demonstrating how individuals can adopt extreme roles when placed in situations that foster dehumanization and power dynamics Role conformity, prisoner rebellion, Psychological harm, loss of personal identity, lack of intervention, right to withdraw Human subject protection

bioethics (9 decks)

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