Empirical Approach
use of observations in collecting data
Four Keys to Empirical Approach
- Why
- Whom
- How
- When
Hypothesis
statement of expected results (why)
population
(whom) to observe
a. entire population
b. sample of population
measures
- objective tests
- interviews
- direct observations of behavior
(how)
Timing
(when)
data
observations made by researchers resulting in either numbers or words
Qualitative Research
interview data described in a narrative that points out themes and trends
Experimental research
give treatments and observe if they cause changes in behavior
Random assignment
gives each participant an equal chance of being in either group
Classic simple experiment
researcher forms two groups and gives each group a different treatment
Experimental group
group receiving treatment
control group
group receiving no treatment
true experiment
participants divided at random
Non-experimental studies
- no treatments given
2. only observations of participants as they naturally exist
Most common type of non experimental study
survey or poll
survey or poll types
- interviews
2. questions
Attributes observed in survey studies
- attitudes
- beliefs
- behaviors
What is the purpose of an experiment?
to explore cause and effect relationships (i.e. treatments are given to see how they affect the participants)
demographics
background characteristics such as socioeconomic status
causal-comparative study
ex post facto study
Causal-Comparative Study Essential Characteristics
- observe and describe a current condition
2. look into the past to try to identify the possible causes of the condition
Best study to explore causality?
causal-comparative
Causal-Comparative Research
look into the past for a cause of a current condition
Census
interview of all members of a population
case study
study involving only one participant
longitudinal research
repeatedly measure traits of the participants over a period of time in order to trace developmental trends
correlational research
interested in the degree of relationship among two or more quantitative variables
quantitative research
gather numerical data for statistical analysis
Qualitative research
gather data to be analyzed through informed judgment to identify major and minor themes expressed by participants.
Historical research
by reviewing historical evidence, researchers are able to develop theories that may explain historical events and patterns and then lead to hypotheses
variable
a trait or characteristic with two or more categories
Mutually exclusive categories
each respondent to a survey belongs to only one category
exhaustive category
a variable must have a category for each respondent’s opinion
categorical variables
naming variables
Independent variable
stimulus or input that causes changes; predictor
dependent variable
response or output; criterion
research hypothesis
prediction of the outcome of a study
directional hypotheses
researchers predict which group will be higher or have more of some attribute
nondirectional hypothesis
researcher says there will be a difference but does not predict the direction of the difference
Two options for a nondirectional hypothesis:
- research purpose
2. research question
Null hypothesis
- statistical hypothesis
2. needs to be considered in analysis
Conceptual definitions
does not indicate a precise concrete physical steps taken to identify the variable
operational definition
defining a variable in terms of physical steps
replication
attempt to confirm the results of a study by conducting it again
Program Evaluation
report on the implementation and effectiveness of the program being funded
Four components of Program Evaluation
- applied research
- needs assessment
- formative evaluation
- summative evaluation
theory
unified explanation for discrete observations that might otherwise be viewed as unrelated or contradictory
Grounded Theory
- in qualitative research
- inductive
- grounded in observations
- evolutionary
- regularly revised during observations