ISSUES AND DEBATES Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
ethical guidelines
A
principles set out by BPS to ensure psychologists conduct research in a safe and honest manner.
2
Q
ethical issues
A
issues that arise when there is a conflict of interest between the rights of a participant and the aims of a researcher (e.g. when ethical guidelines are broken).
3
Q
ethical implications
A
beyond ethical issues.
Refers to impacts and consequences upon wider society.
Consider how findings are used e.g. how a particular group may be portrayed or stereotyped.
4
Q
socially sensitive research
A
- When there are potential social consequences of the participants, or the group of people represented by the research.
Could lead to prejudice and discrimination of certain groups represented in the research.
5
Q
socially sensitive
effects on participants beyond research setting
A
Strange Situation – mother may be blamed or feel inadequate if child does not have a secure attachment type, which is considered the ideal and anything that deviates from this is a problem.
6
Q
socially sensitive
effects of research findings on wider public
schizophrenia
A
Research indicates that schizophrenia is a result of family dysfunction.
Schizophrenogenic mother – mother’s parenting style is responsible for onset of schizophrenia. Child blames the mother as it could have otherwise been prevented.
Can lead to family therapy and treatment or prevention.
7
Q
socially sensitive
potential use of findings - political consequences (changes in legislation or public policy)
A
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation research led to maternity leave (paid and job security) – emphasis on importance of first few months of attachment on rest of child’s life and future attachments.
People can’t be held accountable for aggression if biologically determined as have no conscious control. Violent crimes cannot be punished.
8
Q
socially sensitive
potential prejudice / bias towards certain groups in society
A
Mothers may be blamed for delinquency of children, suggested due to maternal deprivation.
If Milgram had found that Americans didn’t obey, it would have lead to significant discrimination and perpetuation of stereotypes against Germans, leading to exclusion from society.
9
Q
obligation to costs and benefits
A
Psychologists have an obligation to weigh up possible costs and benefits before conducting research and can only proceed with research if benefits outweigh the costs.
10
Q
socially sensitive
Raine’s brain scans of murderers
intro
A
- Had damage to areas of the brain associated with impulse control.
Marker of criminality.
Misery and money could be saved if children could be screened for these markers and ‘something done about it.’
11
Q
socially sensitive
Raine’s brain scans of murderers
weaknesses
A
- Looking for a difference between murders and non-murderers, so one group will come off favourably and the other worse.
- Participants may have felt coerced into research as they are imprisoned, so right to withdraw compromised.
- Participants pleaded insane so cannot provide informed consent, cannot fully understand.
- Suggests that participants are destined to be aggressive – could cause long term psychological harm to think that they are aggressive by nature.
- Finding that participants tend to have low levels of activity in the prefrontal cortex could potentially give rise to a mass screening programme that results in labelling and stigmatisation of people who are innocent.
- May also undermine attempts at offender rehabilitation by promoting a deterministic view of aggression.
- Suggests that they are not to blame for their aggressive behaviour which is not empowering as it suggests that they cannot control their behaviour.
May not show guilt or remorse. - Lack of justice for victims as cannot punish behaviour they cannot control.
- If beyond conscious control, important to understand this and focus on treatment and rehabilitation as opposed to punishment.
- Detrimental to society as creates issues with blame and punishment.
Justice not served.
Increase in aggressive behaviour. - Findings could lead to bias and discrimination against people with brain damage or brains that function differently from ‘normal’.
Mass screening could identify those at risk.
People with brain abnormalities could be segregated or cast out and prejudicial attitudes form against this group.
Could lead to self-fulfilling prophecy.
12
Q
social sensitivity
societal gains / changes in legislation
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation and monotropic theory
A
- Idea that a child needs a continuous relationship with the mother in the first 5 years of life to develop normally.
- Disruption to this bond through separation can have a negative effect on later social, emotional, and intellectual development.
13
Q
social sensitivity
societal gains / changes in legislation
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation and monotropic theory
strengths
A
- Allowed for recognition of the negative effects of hospitalisation on a child’s emotional wellbeing.
Parents are now able to stay in hospital with their child and this aids child’s recovery – changed hospital practice / policy.
Maternity leave – keeps a woman’s job secure so she can care of a baby during the critical period and reduce separation that could lead to deprivation.
14
Q
social sensitivity
societal gains / changes in legislation
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation and monotropic theory
weaknesses
A
- Could create prejudice towards working mothers. Blamed for child’s intellectual and emotional development.
- Could also lead to bias towards men.
Less likely to get custody of child as role of the father is downplayed.
15
Q
socially sensitive
biological explanations of aggression
weaknesses
A
- Excuses male aggression against women.
Arises from sexual jealousy and lack of parental certainty. - Problematic for females in wider society if seen as excusable or unavoidable.
- Removes accountability for men so may lead to worsened aggression or violence against women. Subsequently is difficult to punish.
- May bias judgement in male vs female aggression.
Males more likely seen as instigator due to biological theories suggesting male aggression is more likely.
16
Q
how to deal with socially sensitive research
A
consider framing of research question
ensure findings are presented responsibly
conduct cost benefit analyses
17
Q
consider framing of the research question
A
- Avoid researching sensitive topics e.g. looking for a difference between certain groups.
One group will always appear worse. - Research into cultural or sex differences could be avoided if there are negative implications for either group.
18
Q
ensure findings are presented responsibly
A
- Psychologists should have awareness of negative implications that could arise e.g. bias towards a certain group.
- Should ensure that findings are presented responsibility in a way that minimises misrepresentation where certain groups may be prone to bias or stigmatisation.
- E.g. in Hofling’s obedience study, 21/22 nurses administered a lethal dose of drug to a patient.
Makes nurses sound bad and untrustworthy.
May cause psychological harm to those who obeyed as may doubt their abilities.
Public may lose faith in nurses. - Findings should be presented in a way that nurses are not portrayed negatively and should ensure that findings are not sensationalised and reported in a way that negatively impacts a group in society.
Could lead to suggestions on how to educate nurses to question orders.
Work with policy providers about training of nurses.
Say that all humans would have acted in this way, not just nurses. - Researchers could work with policy makers to help make changes that will benefit society in some way.
19
Q
conduct cost benefit analyses
A
- Researcher should ensure that any potential costs to participants or groups are outweighed by societal benefits.
- Research should be approved by an ethics board before it takes place.
Research adapted to minimise potential ethical implications. - However, it can be difficult to determine what the benefits and costs could be before.
20
Q
importance of socially sensitive research
A
Socially sensitive research poses risks for groups in society but by researching sensitive topics, we can identify interventions that make society a safer place. By understanding processes behind human behaviour, we can reduce some pressing problems. It could be argued that researchers have a duty to engage with socially sensitive research, not avoid it.
21
Q
gender bias
A
- Practice of psychology routinely and persistently operating for the benefit of one gender in relation to the other.
One gender favoured over the other or one gender discriminated against. - Failure to adequately consider the differences between men and women can lead to gender bias but so too can exaggerating the differences.
22
Q
why does gender bias arise
A
male samples and researchers dominate the field
male behaviour seen as the norm / ideal
research demonstrating a difference between genders is more likely to be published
23
Q
male samples and researchers dominating the field
A
- Predominance of research based on samples of men, conducted by male researchers. Findings may then be generalised to women.
Procedures may not be suitable for females as designed from a male point of view.
Editors of psychology are predominantly men (60%).
More likely to pick male studies that appeal more to men to publish. - Researchers may have different expectations of men and women, which may affect research outcomes.
Milgram found that 65% of both men and women reached 450v.
Confirmation bias of expectations of female behaviour.
Women showed more moral strain. May have expected women to be more emotional.
24
Q
male behaviour seen as the norm / ideal
A
- If male researchers dominate the field, then male behaviour may be viewed as the ideal and if women deviate from this standard they may be seen as abnormal or inferior.
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research demonstrating a difference between genders is more likely to be published
* Publication bias
* Research may overemphasise differences between men and women.
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alpha bias
when differences between males and females are exaggerated, thus misrepresenting the behaviour of the genders.
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beta bias
when differences between males and females are minimised or ignored, this misrepresenting the behaviour of the genders.
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androcentrism
gender bias can result in this. Describes a predominantly male perspective that often minimises or completely excludes the female experience and perspective.
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universality
if a behaviour is universal in terms of gender, this means that we would see the same behaviour occurring in all genders. However, many researchers only study one gender and assume that all the behaviour they find is universal, leading to gender bias.
30
alpha bias / androcentrism
Freud's theory of psychosexual development
* Suggested that anatomical differences between men and women lead to vast psychological differences.
* Women defined as ‘not men’ and suffer from penis envy, which grows over time and manifests in a daughter’s love for her father and desire to give birth to a son (as close a woman can get to having a penis of her own).
Theory suggests that femininity is failed masculinity as women will never be as good as men. They are inferior as do not have own penis.
Substitute desire for a penis with having a baby (Electra complex).
* Theory suggests that women have weaker superego development. During the Oedipus complex, boys internalise their fathers as they suffer from castration anxiety (believe this will happen with their father learns the truth about wishing to sexually possess their mothers).
* Girls do not have this fear, so when they internalise their mother, it is not to the same extent, meaning their superegos are much weaker.
Pathologises women who are ambitious and career driven, suggesting that they are suffering from penis envy and want to be like men.
31
beta bias
research into social influence
* All male samples and all male researchers.
* Assumed findings would be the same in females.
* But Jenness found that females conformed more than males.
32
alpha bias
evolutionary explanations of human behaviour e.g. aggression and relationships
* Evolutionary aggression suggests that male on male aggression is due to men lacking parental certainty, which drives sexual jealousy and aggression.
* Males are more aggressive as they have more to lose from raising a child that is not theirs. Women may lose resources if man left them but would have successfully passed on genes.
* Infidelity more likely in males as need to increase chances of reproduction.
* Highlighting differences between men and women provides justification for male aggression and blames the female. Suggests that men cannot help their aggression, which reduces accountability and excuses aggressive behaviour.
33
alpha bias
attachment, role of the father
* Suggests that fathers fulfil a qualitatively different role to mothers.
Men are more fun and are risk takers.
Women provide emotional support and are more nurturing.
Maximises differences.
34
beta bias
diagnosing mental illness
* Clinicians may base judgements on stereotypical beliefs about males and females, affecting validity of diagnosis.
* Only 32% of consultant psychiatrists are female, leading to gender bias in diagnosis.
Male symptoms seen as normal.
Assume women show the same symptoms.
Could lead to misdiagnosis as looking for male symptoms.
Treatment might be focused on males and not effective in females.
35
consequences of androcentrism
* Gender bias can result in the belief that male behaviour represents the norm.
* Female behaviour seen as abnormal, so women are misrepresented and pathologised. Can lead to misdiagnosis.
36
consequences of reinforcement of stereotypes and prejudice
* Research that exaggerates differences (alpha) may create or reinforce dangerous stereotypes.
Psychodynamic approach suggests that women in positions of power suffer from penis envy and have failed masculinity.
Damaging to women by suggesting they are not independently capable to be in a position of power.
* If biological differences are emphasised, social and external factors in human behaviour are downplayed or ignored.
E.g. male aggression or promiscuity deemed biologically driven, removes accountability so cannot be punished.
37
ways to avoid
women in psychological research
* Worrell suggests research criteria important to ensure non-gender biased investigations:
Using alternative methods of inquiry to explore the personal lives of women.
Considering women in the natural settings in which they function.
Collaborating with research participants to explore personally relevant variable.
Studying diverse female samples (women who vary by age, socio-economic class, partner preferences, minority or ethnic group).
Promotes the idea that all members of a sex are the same.
Important concept to consider when aiming to reduce gender bias.
38
ways to avoid
address publication bias
* Research that suggests a significant differences between men and women is most likely to be published.
* Leads to exaggeration of differences between men and women and the presentation of scientifically misleading information.
* Can publish research that does not show a difference, do not compare groups not investigated and not compare men and women.
39
culture bias
* The tendency to judge people in term of one’s own cultural assumptions, distorting or biasing our judgement of other cultures.
Preferential treatment of one culture to the detriment of another.
* In 1992, 64% of researcher were American, so psychology is mainly a study of white Americans. This ethnocentrism, where psychologists and subjects come from a narrow range of wester cultures leads to significant biases in psychological research.
Individualistic / western – prioritise self over group.
Collectivistic / non-western – prioritise group over self.
40
ethnocentrism
– centred on one’s own ethnic group, emphasising the importance of the behaviour of one’s own culture. Seeing your own culture as the norm or most important.
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imposed etic
– construct from one culture is inappropriately applied to another.
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cultural relativism
behaviour can only be properly understood and only has meaning in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs.
Appreciating that behaviour varies between cultures.
Ainsworth would suggest that children in Japan and German have insecure and worse attachments based on American ideals.
Germans had more type A as they value independence.
Japanese had more type C as children weren’t separated from mother until 2 years old.
43
universality
when there are personal qualities and characteristics, including attitudes and values, that are assumed to be common across cultures.
44
culture bias in attachment
* Cross-cultural research using strange situation procedure is ethnocentric.
Devised by Ainsworth, based on American ideals, using original sample of American children.
* Used same procedure in other cultures, assuming that it is internally valid.
Procedure was unsuitable for Japanese children, as they were extremely distressed when separated from the mother and the experiment had to be stopped, as hadn’t previously been separated.
* Therefore, attachment ideals were based on Westernised values and beliefs. Categorising other cultures using this is ethnocentric.
45
culture bias in attachment
why is an issue
* Distorts our judgement of those from other cultural backgrounds.
German mothers may be perceived as lacking sensitivity and nurturing as children were insecurely attached (type A).
Independence in children is valued and encouraged.
Japanese mothers didn’t leave children alone until they are 2 years old, so higher percentage of type C children.
* Research should be culturally relative i.e. researchers should demonstrate an understanding of cultural values, to prevent imposed etic.
46
culture bias in schizophrenia
* People of Afro-Caribbean descent were 7 times more likely to be diagnosed.
* Cooper found that psychiatrists in New York were twice more likely to diagnose than psychiatrists in London.
* Rack found that in some countries, it is normal to hear voices of deceased loved ones, as part of the grieving process.
Not viewed as a mental illness.
47
culture bias in schizophrenia
why an issue
* Culture impacts reliability and validity of diagnosis.
* Clinicians from a different cultural background may view symptoms in a ethnocentric way, viewing mental illness from their own perspective, pathologizing normal behaviour.
48
culture bias in relationships
* Theories such as self-disclosure may be less relevant in certain cultures.
* Some cultures may be willing to disclose a lot of intimate information.
49
culture bias in relationships
why an issue
* Demonstrates importance of acknowledging cultural relativism – behaviour only has meaning in the culture in which it occurs.
50
culture bias in social influence
* Kilham and Mann replicated Milgram’s research in Australia.
* 65% in America, 40% in Australia.
* Australians less likely to obey, even if both Westernised, individualistic, with similar cultures and lifestyles. Demonstrates big differences between countries and within cultures.
51
culture bias in social influence
why an issue
* Highlights need of not generalising findings to other cultures.
* Need to understand behaviour in terms of its cultural background.
52
how to avoid culture bias
care when publishing findings
* Researchers should not attempt to generalise findings or theories that are not represented in the research sample.
* When reporting, it should be clear that conclusions may only apply to the culture in which the research took place.
* Researchers should show sensitivity to cultural norms when reporting findings and reflect upon their own biases.
53
how to avoid culture bias
use researchers familiar with culture
* Cross-cultural research is important to help us investigate whether human behaviour is driven by nature or nurture.
* Researchers should investigate cultures they are familiar with i.e. use researchers who are native to the culture.
* If not, researchers should immerse themselves in the culture being investigated to familiarise themselves with their cultural norms and background.
Emic approach
* Research should be designed with this in mind e.g. Strange situation could be adapted in Japan so that the children were not left alone, perhaps just at a further proximity.
However, cannot compare findings as they follow different procedures.
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nomothetic
* Aim to produce general laws of human behaviour from large samples that can be universally applied and generalised to entire populations.
* Considered to be the true paradigm and goal of the scientific method.
Ainsworth assumed that every culture’s ideal attachment was secure.
Milgram assumed that all participants would entre the agentic state and obey authority figures.
Animal behaviours generalised to humans; all humans learn in the same way.
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nomothetic sample
large, representative of people in target population, allows for generalisation, can avoid anomalies affecting data. Stratified sampling method preferable as representative of all groups in society.
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nomothetic hypothetico-deductive model
(creation of a testable hypothesis where variables are operationalised and tested in an experiment), does use as starts with hypothesis and manipulation of variables, experiments or observations with large samples.
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nomothetic data gathered
quantitative, allowing us to identify trends and differences between groups, identify anomalies, use stats tests to determine whether data is significant.
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nomothetic generation of laws
possible
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idiographic
* Studying individuals without intending to establish general laws of behaviour, focusing on subjective experiences of individuals.
* Focused on particular case, place or phenomenon, designed to derive meanings particular to research target and not for extrapolating generalisations.
Freud conducted detailed observations into the lives of his patients to understand them and help them overcome their psychological disorders e.g. Little Hans.
Then adopted a nomothetic approach by assuming that because Little Hans had an Oedipus complex that every young boy does.
* Humanistic psychologists argue that objective reality is less important than a person’s subjective perception and experiences.
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idiographic sample
one person in a case study, triangulation allowing for greater depth of data and holistic understanding of an individual. Cannot generalise as one person in a unique situation that cannot be replicated, affected by individual differences.
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idiographic hypothetico-deductive method
does not use as can’t manipulate variables, case studies naturally occurring, can’t devise hypothesis.
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idiographic data gathered
qualitative, in depth, commentary, allowing for holistic understanding of an individual, detailed analysis, lots of insight.
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idiographic generation of laws
not possible
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nomothetic scientific
Nomothetic provides a scientific approach to studying human behaviour.
Uses quantitative methods that can be objectively analysed.
Research takes place in controlled conditions, so is highly reliable.
Replication allows for researchers to validate findings.
Statistical analysis is possible, meaning that significance can be calculated.
65
idiographic scientific
Idiographic is less scientific.
Uses qualitative methods which are subjective and gathered from natural environments.
Methods cannot be replicated – unique situation, no control over environment.
Difficult to quantify subjective experiences, making statistical testing unlikely and objective analysis difficult.
Researcher studying a participant over a long period of time may form a relationship, leading to researcher bias.
66
idiographic validity
Idiographic produces highly valid data.
Uses qualitative methods which gather in-depth and detailed data e.g. Freud used qualitative data from interviews based on Little Hans’ dreams.
Allows for richness of human experience to be captured.
Implies that the idiographic approach is more useful in explaining and understanding human behaviour.
Provides qualitative data, which is subjective and more time costly to analyse.
67
nomothetic validity
Nomothetic produces data that lacks validity.
Gathers quantitative data, reducing thoughts and feelings down to quantifiable data which is a superficial representation of human behaviour.
E.g. 65% of people in Milgram’s experiment obeyed and reached 450v.
Fails to capture reasoning behind behaviour.
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nomothetic useful
Nomothetic approach is highly useful
Creates general rules, allowing predictions about human behaviour to be made.
E.g. biological explanation of OCD and schizophrenia suggest that people with specific genes will develop the disorders.
Psychologists can identify cause of mental illness on a wide scale, so can suggest appropriate treatments to help manage the disorder e.g. antipsychotics that reduce levels of dopamine to treat schizophrenia.
Useful in developing treatments that can be used by the general population.
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idiographic usefulness
Idiographic approach is unable to make such generalisations and cannot make predictions about human behaviour.
Humanistic approach acknowledges that patients are unique. To treat patients or aid self-actualisation, would tailor therapy to each individual patient e.g. focus on specific needs of each participants / what part of the hierarchy of needs they lack.
Unable to generate applications / interventions that would work on a wider scale.
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nomothetic individual differences
Nomothetic approach ignores individual differences.
Behaviour in Milgram’s research cannot be explained by nomothetic rules. 35% of participants did not obey, and we do not know why they behaved differently. If everyone acts the same 100% would have reached 450v.
Although gives us useful approximations or guides, must consider the role of individual differences.
71
nomothetic vs idiographic
conclusions
* Nomothetic creates generalised laws, but it is important to acknowledge variance between groups and individual differences.
* Nomothetic ignores complexity of an individual’s experience, casting doubt on validity.
* More helpful to see both approaches as complementary.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory used a nomothetic approach.
A case study of twins demonstrates that maternal deprivation can be overcome.
Combined approach would be best – start with a nomothetic approach and once general laws have been established, research can more to a more idiographic approach.
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nomothetic strengths
Large scale applications – useful for treatment and intervention
Empirical testing
Scientific
Replication possible
Controlled methods
Objective
Able to make predictions about behaviour on a wider scale
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nomothetic weaknesses
Data narrow and superficial
Less valid data
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idiographic strengths
Accounts for individual differences
More valid data
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idiographic weaknesses
Time consuming
Researcher bias
Subjective analysis
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holism
* Views human behaviour as a whole integrated experience rather than looking at separate parts.
* Attempts to blend different levels of explanation – will consider a range of factors.
* Provides a complete and fuller understanding of human behaviour.
* E.g. when studying patients with depression:
Childhood experience and upbringing
Sociocultural environment
Biological – genetic causes
Cognitive explanation – ABC model (activating event)
Maladaptive thought processes
77
reductionism
* Behaviour explained by breaking it down into simpler components.
* Looking at small units e.g. just genetics, just hormones or use theoretical models e.g. components of the MSM including SM, STM and LTM.
* Taking complexity of the behaviour and oversimplifying it.
78
physiological reductionism
Biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurones, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure etc.
E.g. OCD/schizophrenia – hereditary, hypo/hyperdopaminergia, polygenetic, aggression (XYY, MAOA-L)
79
environmental reductionism
Behaviour can be explained in terms of basic stimulus-response links.
Can be reduced to relationship between events in the environment and subsequent behaviour.
E.g. behaviourist approach – event in environment leads to specific behaviour, phobias/attachment – classical/operant conditioning, aggression – SLT.
80
machine reductionism
Likens the human mind to a computer.
Behaviour is the consequence of units of activity in information processing systems.
E.g. cognitive approach – computer process model, depression (Ellis, ABC), memory (multi-store), schizophrenia (faulty processes)
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levels of reductionism
* Refers to how some psychological explanations can be more reductionist than others.
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lower level reductionism
Biological/physiological – most basic explanations of behaviour focus on singular biological units e.g. genes, hormones.
E.g. dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia – high and low levels of dopamine (in mesolimbic or meso-cortical pathway) can increase risk of schizophrenia.
E.g. XYY causing aggression, worry circuit and caudate nucleus prevents blocking of OCD symptoms
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middle level reductionism
Psychological – slightly more detailed, focusing on non-biological factors.
E.g. cognitive explanation of schizophrenia – dysfunctional thought processes (poor meta-representation, central control issues) are at risk of schizophrenia.
E.g. SLT of aggression, SLT or attachment, behavioural explanation of phobias
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higher level reductionism
Cultural and social – most complex, focusing on a range of factors withing society, such as where and how we live. Tend to be multivariable.
E.g. gender, culture and urbanicity affecting likelihood of developing schizophrenia.
E.g. conformity, obedience, media on aggression
85
reductionism scientific
A reductionist approach forms the basis of scientific research.
In order to create operationalised variables, it is necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts, making it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way that is meaningful and reliable.
Behaviourist approach was able to demonstrate how complex learning could be broken down to simple stimulus-response links.
Gives psychology greater credibility.
86
interactionist alternative to reductionism
Interactionist approach is an alternative to reductionism.
Considers how different levels of the explanation combine and interact, rather than the concern of higher-level explanations of behaviour of holism.
E.g. diathesis-stress model used to explain onset of schizophrenia and depression. Result of a predisposition (genetic) triggered by a stressor (experience).
Lead to more multidisciplinary and holistic approach to treatment – combining drugs and family therapy and is associated with lower relapse rates.
87
reductionism not full understanding
Some aspects of social behaviour only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at the level of individuals.
E.g. effects of conformity to social roles and deindividuation of prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment is due to the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group.
Suggests that holistic explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches.
88
holistic scientific
Holistic explanations do not lend themselves to scientific testing and can become vague and speculative as they become more complex.
Humanistic psychology tends to be criticised for its lack of empirical evidence, and is seen as a loose set of concepts.
Higher level explanations that combine different perspectives present a practical dilemma. There are may factors contributing to depression, so we cannot establish what is most influential and what should be used as a basis for therapy.
Suggests that lower level explanations are more appropriate for finding solutions to real-world problems.
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reductionism validity
Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying, leading to low validity.
Explanations that operate at the level of the gene, neurotransmitter or neurone do not include an analysis of the social context, where behaviour may derive its meaning.
E.g. physiological processes involved in pointing one’s finger will be the same regardless of the context. An analysis of these will tell us why the finger is pointed – to draw attention, act of aggression or raised hand to answer questions.
Means that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.
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free will
* Idea that we can play an autonomous, active role in determining our own behaviour as we have conscious control.
* Assumption that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined.
Behaviour is unpredictable as it is due to the individual.
Can be held accountable for behaviour as it is down to a conscious choice.
* Humanistic approach suggests that we have control over our future and actions. Client-centred therapy takes the stance that the client is the expert on themselves and has control, while the therapist guides them.
* Free will cannot be seen or empirically tested.
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determinism
* Idea that our thoughts and behaviour are entirely governed by external or internal forces we cannot consciously control.
Behaviour can be predicted as it is influenced beyond conscious control e.g. if rewarded, behaviour is repeated.
Cannot be held accountable as behaviour not under conscious control.
* External forces influencing behaviour:
Behaviourism – classical and operant conditioning, consequences of actions.
Disposition in institutional aggression.
Family dysfunction in schizophrenia.
* Internal forces influencing behaviour:
Biological approach.
MAOA-L gene, high testosterone, XYY, hormone and neurotransmitter levels
92
hard determinism
traits and behaviours are entirely out of the individual’s control.
* Biological approach - genes, brain structure.
* Behaviourism – conditioning from environment and consequences.
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soft determinism
Soft determinism – traits and behaviours are determined by external or internal forces, but an individual can still exercise some control e.g. via thought processes.
* Social learning theory – mediational processes.
* Cognitive approach – CBT aims to challenge irrational beliefs.
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environmental determinism
Environmental determinism – traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as experiences, upbringing, learning, schools, parents, peers etc.
learning, behaviourism, conditioning from environment and consequences
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psychic determinism
traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives, the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences
psychodynamic approach
psychosexual stages of development
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biological determinism
traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors like genes, neurochemistry, brain structure and function. Biology is destiny.
* Biological approach – genetics, neurochemical processes, anatomy.
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scientific emphasis on causal explanations
* Prefer deterministic approaches as allow exploration of causal relationships.
* Identify a cause of behaviour, create a testable hypothesis, and empirically measure using the hypothetico-deductive method. Involves isolating an IV, controlling EVs and investigating impact on DV.
Allows us to establish cause and effect.
* Loftus hypothesised that leading questions would impact speed estimates.
IV = intensity of critical verb used, DV = estimated speed.
Example of determinism – participants didn’t actively choose to change their speed responses; the verb used guided their responses.
* Scientific method fits with a deterministic approach.
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determinism evidence to support
Evidence to support the idea of behaviour being determined.
Libet found that activity related to whether to press a button with the right or left hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making such a decision.
Supports hard / biological determinism – controlled by internal factors, challenges the idea of making a conscious choice – brain males decision without our awareness.
Therefore, explanation has greater credibility.
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determinism scientific
Deterministic approaches tend to be more scientific.
Identify a cause of behaviour, allowing us to empirically test. Can isolate independent variable and manipulate and test it. E.g. Loftus changing the critical verb, affecting speed estimates.
Adds credibility, as can provide more supporting evidence.
100
deterministic implications
Implications when taking a deterministic approach.
Would suggest that individuals may not have to take accountability for their actions. For example, Raine’s research on violent offenders pleading NGRI found cortical differences in the brain.
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free will empowering
Adopting the stance of free will may be more empowering.
Suggests that we have complete conscious control over our own behaviour.
Client-centred therapy based on belief that we can change our behaviour.
Encourages control of negative behaviour and improvement of positive behaviour.
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free will individual differences
Taking a free will view shows considerations of individual differences.
Suggests that all people will act differently, as have conscious control over how we behave, due to individual personalities.
Explaining why everyone acts differently, not explained by deterministic stance.
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free will scientific
The free will stance cannot be studied scientifically.
Cannot make generalisations.
Cannot form hypotheses and cannot manipulate variables to empirically test.
Therefore, it lacks credibility.
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determinism free will conclusion
Soft determinism is a better approach as acknowledges that some aspects of behaviour are determined, due to the influence of biology and the environment, but we still have some conscious control over our behaviour.
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nature
nativists suggest that human characteristics are innate and heredity, hardwired into brain at birth.
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nurture
– empiricists suggest that the mind is a blank slate at birth, upon which learning and experience writes.
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interactionist approach
nature creates nurture, heredity and environment interact.
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nature nurture aggression
Nature – MAOA-L gene can cause aggression if inherited.
Nurture – exposure to violent media – situational factors linked to institutional aggression.
Interactionism – must also have experienced childhood trauma as well as inherited genes for aggression to occur.
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nature nurture attachment
Nature – Lorenz, imprinting is innate as occurs immediately after birth. Survival function of staying close to mother figure.
Nurture – learning theory of attachment, associate mother with food.
Interactionism – Ainsworth’s attachment types. Secure attachment was most common in all countries (nature, universal), but were variations in insecure attachments which may be due to child-rearing styles/culture (nurture).
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nature nurture schizophrenia
Nature – neurotransmitters, glutamate, pathways in the brain – brain function can influence schizophrenia.
Nurture – family dysfunction – expressed emotion, double bind. Upbringing can influence likelihood of schizophrenia.
Interactionism – hallucinations are caused by an increase in dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway (nature), but these cannot be created without previous learning. E.g. hallucination spiders is a result of learning what a spider looks like, suggesting environmental input.
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nature nurture memory
Nature – memory linked to hippocampus.
Nurture – memories learnt through upbringing and experiences.
Interactionism – anxiety during eyewitness testimony – biological response, bit affected by factors in environment such as trauma, what have just witnessed.
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nature nurture psychopathology
Nature – phobia linked to fight or flight response; adrenaline released when amygdala deems stimulus threatening.
Nurture – mostly acquired through classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning – formed because of experiences.
Interactionism – OCD due to a genetic predisposition and positive reinforcement, compulsions reduce anxiety.
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nature nurture biopsychology
Nature – physical anatomy, genotype, neurotransmitters.
Nurture – phenotype created from interaction between genes and the environment. Evolution is adapting to the environment for survival.
Interactionism – stress responds to stimulus in the environment. Concordance rates are not 100%, so must be both biological and environmental factors.
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nature nurture
cognitive
Nature – neuroscience, analyses levels of activity in the brain.
Nurture – schemas created via experience, vary between cultures.
Interactionism – input, process, output – requires both input (nurture) and process (nature).
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nature nurture psychodynamic
Nature – born with id. Fixations cause behaviours.
Nurture – experiences and upbringing help us develop our ego and superego. Fixations caused by early upbringing.
Interactionism – defence mechanisms are unconscious, suggesting nature is involved, but used in reaction to stimuli in the environment.
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nature nurture humanistic
Nature – hierarchy suggests that we are intrinsically good and have the potential to reach self-actualisation.
Nurture – positive regard and treatment by others affects our self-concept.
Interactionism – mix of physiological and psychological needs in the hierarchy. Need to change environment to reach self-actualisation.
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nurture practical applications
Behaviour shaping (nurture) can be used in a positive way in society.
Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored. E.g. committing a crime results in punishment. Can use to enforce positive behaviours (create lawful and peaceful society) as belief that can be changed through upbringing.
Suggests that idea of nature has practical applications.
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nature nurture interactionist research support
Research support for interactionist approach.
Scarr and McCartney’s theory of gene-environment interaction:
Passive interaction – parent’s gene influence the way they treat their children (musical parents are likely to play to their children and encourage engagement with music).
Evocative interaction – child’s genes influence and shape the environment in which they grow up (musical child will be picked for school concerts and given other special opportunities).
Active interaction – child creates own environment through people and experiences they select (child chooses similar musical friends and seeks out musical experiences).
Points to complex and multi-layered relationship between nature and nurture, and how both play a role in determining behaviour.
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nurture negative applications
Explains how behaviour shaping (nurture) can be used in a negative way in society.
May lead to advocating a model of society that controls and manipulates its citizens using these techniques, to eliminate negative and undesirable behaviours.
Goes against free will, leading to unethical levels of control.
Ethical implications.
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nature deterministic
A nativist viewpoint has led to controversy due to its extremely deterministic stance.
Suggests that anatomy is destiny and that inherited genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviours, while environment has little input.
Attempts to link race, genetics and intelligence, leading to the application of eugenics policies – explains and partly excuses eugenics and sterilisation by the Nazis and in America to prevent the passing on undesirable genetics.
Unethical.
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nature nurture cannot separate
Different to research to separate effects of nature and nurture, in relation to twin study research.
Research attempting to eliminate the influence of environment is complicated, as even siblings in the same family may not have had the same environment.
Individuals experience life events differently e.g. age and temperament would mean that a parental divorce would have a different meaning to each sibling.
Explains findings that even monozygotic twins reared together do not show perfect concordance rates, supporting the view that heredity and environment cannot be separated.
Higher degrees of relatedness, higher likelihood of having a shared environment, so cannot separate out nature and nurture. Twins more likely to be treated similarly.
