MEMORY Flashcards

Question

long term memory research evidence duration

Answer 1

Bahrick uni graduates shown photos from high school yearbook and asked to select name that matched photo 90% able to correctly match names and photos 14 years after graduating 60% after 47 years potentially unlimited duration

Answer 2

Baddeley word sequences presented 4 times ppts spent 20 mins on interference task (STM --> LTM) asked to recall word list in serial order harder to recall semantic list in initial phase --> STM acoustic (semantically similar harder to encode) recall during retest --> semantically similar easier --> LTM is semantic STM and LTM affected differently, different types of encoding

Answer 3

supporting evidence for 3 separate stores Miller found ppts could recall 5-9 numbers, as list increased, ppts were no longer able to recall correctly Baddeley found ppts could recall acoustically similar words initially, but after 20 mins, semantically similar words easier to recall STM and LTM are different stores - lacks mundane realism unnatural tasks e.g. random lists, not indicative of how memory operates irl, unnatural behaviour + Bahrick has high task validity graduates asked to match names to photos in yearbook

Answer 4

high validity HM suffered from epilepsy, medial temporal lobe and hippocampus removed seizures stopped, LTM damaged could recall normal 7 items but could not extend via rehearsal 3 separate stores, info passing is linear - does not account for Clive Wearing damage to hippocampus, severe amnesia STM damaged, cannot hold info for more than 7 seconds (avg = 18-30) LTM intact for specific info - play piano, cannot remember children cannot explain how LTM partially impaired, may be multiple memory stores questions whether linear - STM damaged, LTM intact

Answer 5

importance of rehearsal in forming LTM and passing info advice given to students about consolidating material or revising that rehearsal is significant LTM can decay if not revisited improve revision process

Answer 6

rehearsal does not need to occur for STM --> LTM 'flash-bulb memories' - vivid, long-lasting memory of shocking event info passed straight to LTM, often retrieved without rehearsal questions necessity of rehearsal more research needed

Answer 7

Baddeley and Hitch sensory central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop (phonological store and articulatory control) long

Answer 8

focuses on short term memory multi-component

Answer 9

supervisory function - controls PL and VSS decides which info to attend to or ignore limited capacity process info from any sense vague and untestable cannot falsify

Answer 10

controlled by central executive written and spoken material divided into phonological store and articulatory process

Answer 11

'inner ear' stores info in speech based form duration of up to 2 secs, after which it decays can be retained if rehearsal in articulatory process

Answer 12

'inner voice' rehearses info verbally capacity of what can be rehearsed in 2 secs converts written --> verbal, then transferred to PS

Answer 13

controlled by central executive responsible for visual and spatial info info received from eyes and held in LTM divided into visual info in the visual cache and spatial info in inner scribe

Answer 14

added in 2000 temporary storage system controlled by central executive responsible for chunking info from VSS and PL into detailed single object/event that can be transferred to LTM

Answer 15

dual-task technique - 2 tasks at the same time - if tasks require use of the same system they cannot be performed successfully together (limited capacity) - if they use different systems, both performed successfully together and separately

Answer 16

dual-task technique using VSS track point of light moving around a screen and mentally classify angles of letter F could perform both separately well but when done together, performance at both impaired if did one at the same time as a verbal task, as good at visual as when performing alone indicates other systems which work in different ways - certain tasks cannot be performed at the same time

Answer 17

brain damage, functioned normally but STM severely impaired could only recall 1 or 2 items rather than 7 forgot faster when received auditorily than visually had normal STM span for meaningful sounds but words, letters and digits was limited

Answer 18

PET scan to record brain activity while performing verbal tasks (PL) or visual tasks (VSS) different areas of brain were active - verbal (frontal) - visual (parietal) indicates sub-systems

Answer 19

understanding and supporting people with Alzheimer's patients can use VSS and PL independently but have impaired function when used in conjunction suggests issue with central executive (coordinates diff systems) teaches people to simplify and not overwhelm

Answer 20

research support lacks validity tasks lack mundane realism - unnatural environment and tasks behaviour produced not valid and generalisable to memory in the real world

Answer 21

details on CE are vague and limited no info on capacity, role in attention and whether one or more systems not measured or testable, lacks falsifiability episodic buffer added to address failure to explain chunking and linking PL and VSS

Answer 22

cannot explain different types of memory e.g. musical memory Bertz used dual-task technique using multiple acoustic tasks (PL), could listen to instrumental music without impaired performance on other acoustic tasks contradicts dual-task (not limited capacity) contradicts WMM

Answer 23

Tulving declarative (conscious recall) episodic / semantic non-declarative (unconscious recall) procedural

Answer 24

not a single store, split into 2 categories declarative recalled consciously - ability to think, explain and describe info with language - involves some conscious effort - info brought to mind and 'declared' non-declarative recalled unconsciously - abilities and skills expressed through performance

Answer 25

memories of personal life events / experiences declarative - info needs to be consciously brought to mind hippocampus and temporal lobe reference to time and place easy to forget as become jumbled

Answer 26

memories of meaningful / factual info declarative - info needs to be consciously brought to mind hippocampus and temporal lobe don't remember when memory acquired more difficult to forget than episodic but not as much as procedural

Answer 27

memories of motor skills, actions, muscle memory non-declarative - not consciously aware memorising or recollecting anything basal ganglia and cerebellum automatic and unconscious resistant to forgetting

Answer 28

Clive Wearing, damaged hippocampus, severe amnesia - STM severely impaired (info decays after 7 seconds) - LTM intact - can still read, play piano, no memory of children supports 3 types of LTM (episodic damaged, procedural intact)

Answer 29

able to develop skill of tracing shape with memory over many days but had no memory of having done it before procedural intact (muscle memory retained skill) and recalled unconsciously but episodic damaged

Answer 30

Duff conducted literature review observing LTM tasks and brain scans - episodic and semantic associated with brain activity in hippocampus and temporal lobe - procedural linked to basal ganglia evidence that 3 separate types, in different areas, with varying activity levels

Answer 31

episodic more susceptible to forgetting as become jumbled, semantic more difficult procedural resistant --> recollection unconscious and automatic can develop training specific to different type of memories, help improve memories through cognitive training

Answer 32

episodic and semantic not distinct Tulving - episodic is sub-category of sematic amnesiacs have functioning semantic and damaged episodic but episodic cannot function if semantic damaged contradicts theory of separate stores, lacks validity

Answer 33

lack of generalisability, relies on case studies Clive Wearing, HM and KM for separate stores treated with caution as unique cases not representative of healthy brain and memory

Answer 34

hard to establish exactly which brain regions affected in patients with brain damage damage to particular region (hippocampus) does not necessarily mean that region is associated with particular type of memory

Answer 35

information pushed out due to limited space MSM says LTM has unlimited capacity

Answer 36

information decays if not used MSM says LTM has unlimited duration

Answer 37

one piece of info distorts or blocks recall of another info in LTM becomes confused with others degree of forgetting greater when memories are similar

Answer 38

old memories interfere with retrieval of newer memories older memories better rehearsed and more strongly cemented in LTM easier to recall than recent info

Answer 39

learning of new info interferes with recall of old info

Answer 40

retroactive interference ppts learnt list of 10 words until could remember with 100% accuracy then learnt a new list recalled original list performance depended on nature of second list - most similar material (synonyms) produced worst recall

Answer 41

lab experiment manipulating synonyms and antonym word lists affecting memory high control over extraneous variables using standardised procedure high validity, replicability, more scientific and testable lab lacks ecological validity artificial environment, no mundane realism, cannot be easily generalised to the real world have to rely on inference

Answer 42

Burke and Thomas preserved magazine adverts to participants who recalled details difficulty in recalling earlier adverts and others difficulty recalling later adverts effect greater when adverts were similar suggests research is reliable, consistent findings, validity

Answer 43

Schmidt tested ppts on whether they could remember street names from childhood positive relationship between number of times moved and number of street names forgotten more realistic task w/ greater mundane realism increases generalisability, applicability to real world

Answer 44

Baddeley suggested that tasks are too close to each other and in real life learning and recall are more spread out not accounting for time in real world lacks mundane realism and task validity, not representative

Answer 45

theory is too simplistic explains forgetting when two sets of info are similar e.g. learning 2 languages, but does not happen very often doesn't account for forgetting when there is only one set of info (much more common) or forgetting as a whole (only partial explanation) suggests other explanations e.g. decay other reasons e.g. lack of rehearsal

Answer 46

tell us we get confused between two pieces of info and this leads to forgetting but does not explain how or why no cause and effect - not a complete and comprehensive explanation

Answer 47

cues serve as prompts to help us recall a memory when we create new memories, we also store information relating to the environment and mental/emotional state forgetting occurs because of a lack of cues present at recall (not in same environment or emotional state) problem with accessibility

Answer 48

Tulving if cues are to help with recall, the cue must be present at time of learning and recall if cues available at time of learning are not available at time of recall, there will be some forgetting

Answer 49

forgetting occurs due to lack of external cues in the environment when trying to recall information environment during recall is different to when learning e.g. location, temperature, sound, weather, time, other people present

Answer 50

asked 18 deep sea divers to learn a list of words either on land or underwater half of each group asked to recall words in same environment recall worse for those who recalled in a different environment can conclude that it is easier to recall info when environment during learning and recall are the same memory enhanced when there are context-dependent cues

Answer 51

forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues within a person's mental/emotional/physical state if state during recall is different compared to state during learning it will impact ability to recall e.g. mood, tiredness, medications, sobriety

Answer 52

male students participated in training session and test over 2 days groups: sober on both days, intoxicated on both, intoxicated on day 1 only, intoxicated on day 2 only performed avoidance task, verbal role-learning task, word association and picture recognition tested under same or different conditions learning transfer better when intoxicated on both days than just one better at recalling info when repeat same state of mind

Answer 53

can help students prepare for exams should replicate exam experience as much as possible can help improve recall from witnesses of crimes

Answer 54

only explains one aspect of forgetting cannot account for forgetting in all instances only part of the explanation for a more complex process

Answer 55

Carter and Cassaday gave hay fever drugs to ppts which made them slightly drowsy and asked them to recall lists of words recall was worse when state not the same as learning process supports theory as reinforces idea that internal state at recall needs to similar to state at learning supports Goodwin's research on alcohol, consistent results

Answer 56

Smith found that getting ppts to think of the room they were in when they learnt the list was just as effective as being in the same room useful in all aspects of education, exams, improving attainment useful in improving eyewitness testimony, need recall to be as accurate as possible due to severity of consequences cue dependency highly useful explanation

Answer 57

Baddeley argued that context effects are not very strong in real life hard to find an environment as different as land and underwater learning in one room and recalling in another is not going to amount to the same degree of forgetting less able to explain forgetting in day to day environments lacks real life application and validity

Answer 58

encoding specificity principle cannot be tested so have to infer that cues aid recall e.g. of cue produces successful recall, we assume that cue was encoded at time of learning no way of scientifically testing whether cue has actually been encoded or not validity questioned as based on inference and assumptions rather than observable and empirical evidence

Answer 59

contain cues that influence answer wording indicates desired answer loaded language

Answer 60

to investigate whether speed estimates of cars in accidents can be influenced by leading questions

Answer 61

45 uni students shown videos of car crashes asked 'about how fast were the cars going when they _____ into each other?' contacted, bumped, hit, collided or smashed

Answer 62

as intensity of verb used increased, so did speed estimates contacted 31.8 hit 34 bumped 38.1 collided 39.3 smashed 40.8

Answer 63

verb conveyed impression of speed car was travelling at, altered ppts' perceptions

Answer 64

150 ppts into 3 groups saw video of car crash either asked smashed, hit or nothing questioned a week later whether they saw any broken glass but there was none

Answer 65

ppts asked how fast they were going when they 'smashed' were more likely to report broken glass (16 vs 6)

Answer 66

content of question or leading questions can alter one's memory of an event

Answer 67

suggests wording of the question does not affect memory but influences how they decide to answer leading question of 'smashed' encourages to choose higher speed estimate

Answer 68

wording of question changes ppts' memory ppts who heard smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass than those who heard hit critical verb altered memory of incident

Answer 69

concerns misleading information being added to memory affecting recall can cause false memories confabulation - error in memory where gaps unconsciously filled with fabricated information, confusing imagination with real events

Answer 70

co-witnesses discuss and testimonies become contaminated combine (mis)information with own memories, may reach consensus view NSI, ISI

Answer 71

60 uni students and 60 older adults watched video of girl stealing money either individual or in pairs in experiment, had actually seen different videos and only one witnessed the girl stealing post-event discussion influenced conclusion whether she was guilty or not, even if does not line up with what witnessed works both way, predominantly people who did not see a crime believed she was guilty (60%), but 30% who saw the crime reported her as innocent

Answer 72

increased possibility that comments from interviewer will become incorporated into recollection of events leads to distortion in memory and decrease in accuracy eyewitnesses construct 'memories' in response to cues from interviewer especially if repeated in questions confabulation

Answer 73

156 children aged 4-9 watched staged event and interviewed individually a week later asked 8 open-ended questions, repeated 4 more times half of the questions were unanswerable over a quarter of responses to repeated questions changed, resulting in decline in accuracy number of repetitions and delay intervals had little effect on answerable questions although accuracy to unanswerable questions continued to decline more often a question was repeated, more likely children were to invent a response

Answer 74

Loftus shown distorting effect of leading questions emphasises need for police to be careful about phrasing when interviewing eyewitnesses research paved the way for cognitive interview to maximise accuracy high applicability in real world, useful

Answer 75

age overlooked when considering effects of misleading info Anastasi found that people in age groups 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate that people in groups 55-78 all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own age group (own age bias) suggests inaccurate memory can be affected by multiple factors, not just misleading info overly simplistic and reductionist explanation

Answer 76

Loftus and Palmer asked ppts to watch videos of car crashes and estimate speed car going at does not reflect real life experiences, lacks mundane realism usually heightened emotion which could impact accuracy also more significant consequences - Foster found that identification of a thief was more accurate when ppts thought they were watching a real robbery and info was used in a trial simulated research of little importance do not provide same emotional response, so affects ecological validity

Answer 77

Yuille and Cutshall found evidence of greater accuracy in real life recall witnesses to armed robbery in Canada gave accurate reports of crime 4 months after, despite 2 leading questions contradicts Loftus' findings in artificial lab research - suggests behaviour cannot be generalised to real world findings lack consistency and cannot make reliable conclusion

Answer 78

strong emotional and physiological response (arousal) fear and tension increased HR and perspiration can affect EWT by impairing memory recall and causing witnesses to focus on irrelevant details high levels can lead to overconfidence in accuracy

Answer 79

tendency to focus attention on weapon present, limiting ability to remember other details of crime scene e.g. perpetrator's face

Answer 80

fight or flight response triggered increases awareness and improves memory as become more aware of cues e.g. Yuille and Cutshall

Answer 81

conducted study of real-life shooting in Vancouver gun shop shop owner shot a thief dead interviews held 4-5 months later and compared with original police interviews witnesses rated how stressed they were on a 7 point scale

Answer 82

witnesses accurate and little change some details were less accurate e.g. age, height, weight estimates participants who reported highest levels of stress were more accurate (88% vs 75%)

Answer 83

causes physiological arousal which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse e.g. Johnson and Scott

Answer 84

ppts thought in lab study in waiting room amd heard argument in next room in low anxiety condition, a man walked through the waiting area carrying a pen with grease on his hands in high anxiety condition, a man walked holding a paper knife covered in blood

Answer 85

ppts asked to pick out the man from a set of 50 photos 49% of ppts in low anxiety were able to identify him 33% in high anxiety tunnel theory of memory argues that witness' attention narrows to focus on a weapon as it is a source of anxiety

Answer 86

as arousal increases, performance increases after reaching a certain point, any increased arousal will start to have a negative effect low anxiety results in not much attention paid to environment some arousal needed to focus and pay attention high anxiety detrimental to memory recall

Answer 87

Ginet and Verkampt produced evidence that supports Yerkes-Dodson effect minor details of traffic accident was superior when high anxiety told ppts that electrodes would give electric shocks implies that moderate anxiety foes increase accuracy of recall, supporting theory

Answer 88

Scott and Johnson in lab environment, with artificial events levels of arousal not representative results cannot be generalised to how anxiety and EWT operates irl limited insight however, natural experiments have more ecological validity e.g. Yuille and Cutshall

Answer 89

e.g. Yuille and Cutshall more ecological validity greater mundane realism, so behaviour and results more representative of behaviour in real world setting more generalisable and useful however, unethical to conduct as can cause trauma and harm, impractical and difficult to carry out convincingly

Answer 90

Pickel found that accuracy in identifying the criminal was lowest when holding unexpected item e.g. raw chicken focus not necessarily narrowed onto weapons due to creating anxiety but because surprising and out of context research into weapon focus effect not necessarily studying effects of anxiety on recall

Answer 91

arousal used to measure anxiety more complex than physiological arousal, with cognitive, emotional and behavioural elements way we think about stressful incidents can have major effect on what we remember only provide partial account of relationship between anxiety and recall

Answer 92

assume that all people will respond in the same way and all experience anxiety fails to account for individual differences, levels of anxiety vary between people due to past experiences, childhood, trauma and physiological arousal can be argued that research tries to make generalisations

Answer 93

Fisher and Geiselman need to improve effectiveness of police interviews and techniques when questioning eyewitnesses to retrieve more accurate memories

Answer 94

changing the order report everything reinstate the context changing perspective

Answer 95

asked to recall events in a different order to original sequence e.g. end to beginning prevent reporting expectations of how it must have happened prevents dishonesty - harder to create untruthful account when reversing, as disrupts formation of narrative

Answer 96

encouraged to recall every single detail even if unsure of appears irrelevant may trigger other memories or may be missing piece

Answer 97

put themselves in the same context when witnessing actually or mentally returning to scene to aid recall

Answer 98

recall from another's perspective disrupts effects of expectations and schema on recall

Answer 99

build trusting relationship between interviewer and witness and improves quality of communication speak slowly reduce anxiety not distracting with unnecessary questions or interruptions asking open-ended questions

Answer 100

add more detail less rambling think clearly

Answer 101

anxiety may affect recall

Answer 102

less opportunity for leading questions forget flow of thought

Answer 103

allow more detail explain in own words

Answer 104

Kohnken - meta-analysis of 42 studies and found that enhanced cognitive interview consistently provided more correct information than standard interview proved to reliable measure for recall useful technique to yield more accurate recall

Answer 105

report everything and state the context based on Tulving's encoding specificity principle on cue-dependent forgetting research by Godden and Baddeley suggest that reinstate the context would be a useful technique as they found that divers more likely to recall words in same environment as they were learned in makes credible and useful

Answer 106

Milne and Bull found that each individual element was equally valuable - provided more info than standard police interview combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall confirms usefulness and suggests at least 2 elements should be used increases credibility

Answer 107

Kohnken found an 81% increase in correct info and 61% increase in incorrect information when enhanced CI used compared to a standard interview accuracy decreased, limits usefulness and application decreased

Answer 108

need social skills to use techniques effectively Fisher found that many officers used inappropriate language and interrupted not useful for all in practice

Answer 109

more than standard interview so police may be reluctant need to establish rapport and relax witness specialist training may not be provided unlikely proper version used lacks practical applications and does not work irl, limited usefulness

MEMORY Flashcards

Multi-store model of memory, working memory model, long term memory, explanations of forgetting (interference, retrieval failure), misleading information